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LUXEMBOURG

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Bianca
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« Reply #15 on: April 20, 2008, 08:05:40 pm »



A bronze statue of Jupiter from the Treveran region









                                                                   Religion




 
The Treveri were originally polytheists, and following the Roman conquest many of their gods were identified with Roman equivalents or coupled with Roman gods. Among the most important gods worshipped in Treveran territory were Mercury and Rosmerta, Lenus Mars and Ancamna, Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Apollo, Intarabus, and Minerva.  Among the deities unique to the Treveri were Intarabus, Ritona, Inciona and Veraudunus, and the Xulsigiae.

In Roman times, three important pagan temples in the immediate vicinity of Trier alone are well-known: the extensive Altbachtal temple complex, the nearby temple Am Herrenbrünchen, and the important Lenus Mars Temple on the left bank of the Moselle. Inscriptions attest to the existence of a Treveran cult to Rome and Augustus, but its temple site is uncertain; Wightman suggests that the temple Am Herrenbrünchen would be suitably located, while Metzger argues that it can only have been a poorly-known fourth temple in the city – the so-called Asclepius Temple not far from the bridge over the Moselle.

The Altbachtal complex has yielded a wealth of inscriptions and the remains of a theatre and over a dozen temples or shrines, mostly Romano-Celtic fana dedicated to native, Roman, and Oriental deities. Outside of the city, many sacred sites are known; they are typically enclosed by a wall. Among these may be mentioned the temple of Apollo and Sirona at Hochscheid, that of Lenus Mars on the Martberg by Pommern, the temple and theatre of Mars Smertrius and Ancamna at Möhn, and a mother-goddess sanctuary at Dhronecken.

First the imperial cult and then Christianity rose to prominence in Augusta Treverorum. Constantine had a Christian church built close to his palace, and the city became the seat of a Christian archbishopric during the second half of the third century.  Under Constantine I the city became an important centre for the diffusion of Christianity.

Jerome, Athanasius of Alexandria and Martin of Tours all lived and worked in Trier during the 4th century, while Ambrose was born there.

In the time of Gratian, the Altbachtal complex was "not so much given up as deliberately destroyed" (p.229); cult statues were smashed, and some temples were secularized and made into homes.
The present-day cathedral has its origins in a 4th-century double church.
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« Reply #16 on: April 20, 2008, 08:12:35 pm »









                                                         Material culture





The territory of the Treveri had formed part of the Hunsrück-Eifel culture, covering the Hallstatt D
and La Tène A-B periods (from 600 to 250 BCE).

During the century from 250 to 150 BCE, the area between the Rhine and the Meuse underwent a drastic restructuring as some crisis forced most signs of inhabitation onto the heights of the Hunsrück. Following this crisis, population returned to the lowlands and it is possible to speak with confidence of the Treveri by name. Much of the Treveran countryside seems to have been organized into rural settlements by the end of the 100s BCE, and this organization persisted into Roman times.

Even before Roman times, the Treveri had developed trade, agriculture and metal-working. They had adopted a money-based economy based upon silver coins, aligned with the Roman denarius, along with cheaper bronze or bronze-lead coins. Trade goods made their way to the Treveri from Etruria and the Greek world; monetary evidence suggests strong trade links with the neighbouring Remi. Iron ore deposits in Treveran territory were heavily worked and formed part of the basis for the area's wealth.

Before and for some time after the Roman conquest, Treveran nobles were buried in chamber tombs which were covered with tumuli and filled with sumptuous goods including imported amphorae, weaponry and andirons.

The Treveri adapted readily to Roman civilization, adopting certain Mediterranean practices in cuisine, clothing, and decorative arts starting as early as the Roman occupation of the Titelberg in 30 BCE.
As early as 21 CE, according to Greg Woolf, "the Treveri and the Aedui [were] arguably those tribes which had undergone the greatest cultural change since the conquest" (p.21).

The Romans introduced viticulture to the Moselle valley (see Moselle wine). In general, the archaeological record attests to ongoing rural development and prosperity into the 3rd century CE.  The many individual Treveri attested epigraphically in other civitates may attest to the development of a Treveran commercial network within the western parts of the Empire.
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« Reply #17 on: April 20, 2008, 08:14:59 pm »

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« Reply #18 on: April 20, 2008, 08:17:21 pm »








                                                     Medieval Luxembourg (963 – 1477)
 




Early settlements in the area of today Luxembourg City before the 10th century with the church Saint-Saveur, today St.Micheal, built in 987The history of Luxembourg properly began with the construction of Luxembourg Castle in the Middle Ages. It was Siegfried I, Count of Ardennes who traded some of his ancestral lands with the monks of the Abbey of St. Maximin in Trier in 963 for an ancient, supposedly Roman, fort by the name of Lucilinburhuc. Modern historians explain the etimology of the word with Letze, meaning fortification which might have referred to either the remains of a Roman watchtower or to a primitive refuge of the early Middle Ages.

Around this fort a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a small but important state of great strategic value to France, Germany and the Netherlands. Luxembourg's fortress, located on a rocky outcrop known as the Bock, was steadily enlarged and strengthened over the years by successive owners, among others the Bourbons, Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns, which made it one of the strongest fortresses on the European continent. Its formidable defences and strategic location caused it to become known as the ‘Gibraltar of the North’.

The Luxembourgish dynasty provided several Holy Roman Emperors, Kings of Bohemia, as well as Archbishops of Trier and Mainz. From the Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance, Luxembourg bore multiple names, depending on the author. These include Lucilinburhuc, Lutzburg, Lützelburg, Luccelemburc, Lichtburg, among others.

Luxembourg remained an independent fief (county) of the Holy Roman Empire until 1354, when the emperor Charles IV elevated it to the status of a duchy. At that time the Luxembourg family held the Crown of Bohemia, but the duchy was usually possessed as appanage by a separate branch of the family.

In 1437 the imperial Luxembourg family became extinct in the male line. At that time, the duchy and castle were held by the Bohemian princess Elisabeth of Gorlitz, Duchess of Luxembourg, a cadet granddaughter of emperor Charles IV, who however was childless, and in 1440 made a treaty with her powerful neighbour Philip II, Duke of Burgundy that Philip would administer the duchy and would inherit it after the Duchess Elisabeth's death, which occurred in 1451 – Philip however accelerated things by expelling Elisabeth in 1443.

The heirs of the main Luxembourg dynasty were not happy with the arrangement the Burgundians had made, and managed at times to wrest the possession from Burgundy: the Habsburg prince Ladislas the Posthumous, king of Bohemia and Hungary (d 1457) held the title in the 1450's, and after his death, his brother-in-law William of Thuringia (1425 to 1482) held (or at least claimed) it from 1457 to 1469.

In 1467, Elisabeth, Queen of Poland, the last surviving sister of Ladislas, renounced her right in favour of Burgundy by treaty and some concessions, since the possession was next to impossible to hold against Burgundian actions. After being captured by Philip of Burgundy in 1443 and ultimately from 1467 to 1469, the duchy became one of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. With the marriage of Mary of Burgundy in 1477 all the Netherlands provinces, including Luxembourg, came under Habsburg rule in the person of her husband Maximilian, and later and their son Philip the Handsome.
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« Reply #19 on: April 20, 2008, 08:18:40 pm »



Coat of arms of the Counts,
Dukes and Grand Dukes of
Luxembourg
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« Reply #20 on: April 20, 2008, 08:26:16 pm »








                                           Habsburg rule (1477 – 1815)
 





In these centuries the electors of Brandenburg, later kings of Prussia (Borussia), advanced their
claim to the Luxembourg patrimony, being heirs-general to William of Thuringia and his wife Anna
of Bohemia, the disputed dukes of Luxembourg of the 1460s – Anna was the eldest daughter of the
last Luxembourg heiress. From 1609 onwards, they had a territorial base in the vicinity, the Duchy
of Cleves, the starting-point of the future Prussian Rhineland. This Brandenburger claim ultimately
produced some results when some districts of Luxembourg were united with Prussia in 1813.

The first Hohenzollern claimant to descend from both Anna and her younger sister Elisabeth, was
John George, Elector of Brandenburg (1525–98), his maternal grandmother having been Barbara of
Poland. In the late 18th century, the younger line of Orange-Nassau (the princes who held sway in
the neighbouring Dutch oligarchy) also became related to the Brandenburgers.

In 1598, the then possessor, Philip II of Spain bequeathed Luxembourg and the other Low Countries
to his daughter the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia and her husband Albert VII, Archduke of Austria,
Albert being a heir and descendant of Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1505), queen of Poland, the youngest
granddaughter of Sigismund of Luxembourg, the Holy Roman Emperor. Thus, Luxembourg returned to
the heirs of the old Luxembourg dynasty – at least those of the line of Elisabeth. The Low Countries
were a separate political entity during the couple's reign. After Albert's childless death in 1621, Luxem-
bourg passed to his great-nephew and heir Philip IV of Spain, who through his paternal grandmother
Anna of Austria, queen of Spain, Albert's sister, was the primogenitural heir to the aforementioned
queen Elisabeth of Poland.

Luxembourg was invaded by Louis XIV of France (husband of Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV) in
1684, an action that caused alarm among France's neighbours and resulted in the formation of the
League of Augsburg in 1686. In the ensuing war France was forced to give up the duchy, which was
returned to the Habsburgs by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. During this period of French rule the
defences of the fortress were strengthened by the famous siege engineer Vauban. The French king's
great-grandson Louis (1710–74) was, from 1712, the first heir-general of Albert VII who additionally
was a descendant of Anna of Bohemia and William of Thuringia, having that blood through his mother's
Danish great-great-grandmother (he however was not the heir-general of that line, he was just heir-
general of the other). Louis was the first real claimant of Luxembourg to descend from both sisters,
the daughters of Elisabeth II of Bohemia, the last Luxembourg empress.

Habsburg rule was confirmed in 1715, and Luxembourg was integrated into the Austrian Netherlands.
Emperor Joseph and his successor Emperor Charles VI were, in addition to their descent from Spanish
kings who were heirs of Albert VII, also descendants of Anna of Bohemia and William of Thuringia,
having that blood through their mother (although they were heirs-general of neither line). Charles was
the first ruler of Luxembourg to descend from both sisters, daughters of Elisabeth II of Bohemia, the last Luxembourg empress.

Austrian rulers were more or less ready to exchange Luxembourg and other territories in the Low Countries.
Their purpose was to round out and enlarge their power base, which in geographical terms was centered
around Vienna. Thus, Bavarian candidate(s) emerged to take over the Duchy of Luxembourg, but this plan
led to nothing permanent. Emperor Joseph II however made a preliminary pact to make a neighbour of
Luxembourg, Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, as Duke of Luxembourg and king in the Low Countries, in
exchange of his possessions in Bavaria and Franconia. However, this scheme was aborted. Charles Theodore,
who would thus have become Duke Of Luxembourg, was genealogically a junior descendant of both Anna and Elisabeth, but main heir of neither.

During the War of the First Coalition, Luxemburg was conquered and annexed by Revolutionary France,
becoming part of the département of the Forêts in 1795. The annexation was formalised at Campo Formio
in 1797.
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« Reply #21 on: April 20, 2008, 08:35:17 pm »



The three Partitions of Luxembourg
have greatly reduced Luxembourg's
territory.
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« Reply #22 on: April 20, 2008, 08:37:20 pm »









                                       Developing independence (1815 – 1890)
 




The three Partitions of LuxembourgLuxembourg remained more or less under French rule until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, when the Congress of Vienna gave formal autonomy to Luxembourg. The Prussians had already in 1813 managed to wrest lands from Luxembourg, to strengthen the Prussian-possessed Duchy of Julich. The Bourbons of France held a strong claim to Luxembourg, the Emperor of Austria on the other hand had controlled the duchy until the revolutionary forces had joined it to the French republic (he reportedly was not enthusiastic about regaining Luxembourg and the Low Countries, being more interested in the Balkans). The King of Prussia held the claim of the senior heiress, Anna. An additional claimant emerged, William VI, Prince of Orange who now ruled the Netherlands, and whose mother and wife were descendants of the Prussian royal family and thus also descendants of both daughters of the last Luxembourg heiress. Prussia and Orange-Nassau made the following exchange deal: Prussia received the ancestral lands of Nassau in Central Germany (Dillenburg, Dietz, Siegen, Hadamar, Beilstein); the Prince of Orange in turn received Luxembourg.

Luxembourg, somewhat diminished in size (as the medieval lands had been slightly reduced by the French and Prussian heirs), was augmented in another way through the elevation to the status of grand duchy and placed under the rule of William I of the Netherlands. This was the first time that the duchy had a monarch who had no claim to inheritance of the medieval patrimony (as lineages through his mother and wife had a better entitled claimant, the Prussian king himself). However, Luxembourg's military value to Prussia prevented it from becoming a part of the Dutch kingdom. The fortress, ancestral seat of the medieval Luxembourgers, was taken over by Prussian forces, following Napoleon's defeat, and Luxembourg became a member of the German Confederation with Prussia responsible for its defense.

In July 1819 a contemporary from Britain visited Luxembourg: his journal offers some insights. Norwich Duff writes that "Luxembourg is considered one of the strongest fortifications in Europe, and … it appears so. It is situated in Holland [then as now used by English speakers as shorthand for The Netherlands] but by treaty is garrisoned by Prussians and 5000 of their troops occupy it under a Prince of Hesse. The civil government is under the Dutch and the duties collected by them. The town is not very large but the streets are broader than [in] the French towns and clean ands the houses are good..... got the cheapest of hot baths here at the principal house I ever had in my life: one franc."

Much of the Luxembourgish population joined the Belgian revolution against Dutch rule. Except for the fortress and its immediate vicinity Luxembourg was considered a province of the new Belgian state from 1830 to 1839. By the Treaty of London in 1839 the status of the grand duchy was confirmed as sovereign and in personal union to the king of the Netherlands. In turn, the predominantly French speaking part of the duchy was ceded to Belgium as the province de Luxembourg. This loss left the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg a predominantly German state, although French cultural influence remained strong. The loss of Belgian markets also caused painful economic problems for the state. Recognizing this, the grand duke integrated it into the German Zollverein in 1842. Nevertheless, Luxembourg remained an underdeveloped agrarian country for most of the century. As a result of this about one in five of the inhabitants emigrated to the United States between 1841 and 1891.

It was not until 1867 that Luxembourg's independence was formally ratified, after a turbulent period which even included a brief time of civil unrest against plans to annex Luxembourg to Belgium, Germany or France. The crisis of 1867 almost resulted in war between France and Prussia over the status of Luxembourg. The issue was resolved by the second Treaty of London which guaranteed the perpetual independence and neutrality of the state. The fortress walls were pulled down and the Prussian garrison was withdrawn.

Famous visitors to Luxembourg in the 18th and 19th centuries included the German poet Goethe, the French writers Emile Zola and Victor Hugo, the composer Franz Liszt, and the English painter Joseph Mallord William Turner.
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« Reply #23 on: April 20, 2008, 08:41:49 pm »









Government and politics



Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy headed by a constitutional monarch. Under the constitution of 1868, executive power is exercised by the Governor and the cabinet, which consists of several other ministers. The Governor has the power to dissolve the legislature and reinstate a new one, as long as the Governor has judicial approval. However, since 1919, sovereignty has resided with the Supreme Court.



Legislative power is vested in the Chamber of Deputies, a unicameral legislature of sixty members, who are directly elected to five-year terms from four constituencies. A second body, the Council of State (Conseil d'État), composed of twenty-one ordinary citizens appointed by the Grand Duke, advises the Chamber of Deputies in the drafting of legislation.



The Grand Duchy has three lower tribunals (justices de paix; in Esch-sur-Alzette, the city of Luxembourg, and Diekirch), two district tribunals (Luxembourg and Diekirch) and a Superior Court of Justice (Luxembourg), which includes the Court of Appeal and the Court of Cassation. There is also an Administrative Tribunal and an Administrative Court, as well as a Constitutional Court, all of which are located in the capital.





Military



Luxembourg's contribution to its defence and to NATO consists of a small army (currently consisting of around 800 people). As a landlocked country, it has no navy, and it has no air force, except for the fact that the eighteen NATO AWACS aeroplanes were registered as aircraft of Luxembourg for convenience.[14] In a joint agreement with Belgium, both countries have put forth funding for one A400M military cargo plane, now currently on order. Luxembourg still jointly maintains three NATO Boeing 707 model TCAs for cargo and training purposes based in NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen.
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« Reply #24 on: April 20, 2008, 08:43:07 pm »









                                                      Districts, cantons, and communes
 




Districts of Luxembourg



The largest towns are Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Dudelange, and Differdange.

Luxembourg's climate is characterised by mild temperatures and high precipitation.

Main articles: Districts of Luxembourg, Cantons of Luxembourg, and Communes of Luxembourg

Further information: Administrative divisions of Luxembourg

Luxembourg is divided into 3 districts, which are further divided into 12 cantons and then 116 communes.

Twelve of the communes have city status, of which the city of Luxembourg is the largest.





Districts



The districts are

1. Diekirch
2. Grevenmacher
3. Luxembourg
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« Reply #25 on: April 20, 2008, 08:47:25 pm »










                                                     Geography and climate





Luxembourg is one of the smallest countries in Europe, and ranked 175th in size of all the 194 independent countries of the world; the country is about 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi) in size, and measures 82 km (51 miles) long and 57 km (35 miles) wide. To the east, Luxembourg borders the German Bundesländer of Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland, and, to the south, it borders the French région of Lorraine. The Grand Duchy borders the Belgian Walloon Region, in particular the latter's provinces of Luxembourg and Liège, more in particular the German-speaking Community of Belgium, to the west and to the north respectively.

The northern third of the country is known as the 'Oesling', and forms part of the Ardennes. It is dominated by hills and low mountains, including the Kneiff, which is the highest point, at 560 metres (1,837 ft). The region is sparsely populated, with only one town (Wiltz) with a population of more than four thousand people.

The southern two-thirds of the country is called the "Gutland", and is more densely populated than the Oesling. It is also more diverse, and can be divided into five geographic sub-regions. The Luxembourg plateau, in south-central Luxembourg, is a large, flat, sandstone formation, and the site of the city of Luxembourg. Little Switzerland, in the east of Luxembourg, has craggy terrain and thick forests. The Moselle valley is the lowest-lying region, running along the south-eastern border. The Red Lands, in the far south and southwest, are Luxembourg's industrial heartland and home to many of Luxembourg's largest towns.

The border between Luxembourg and Germany is formed by three rivers: the Moselle, the Sauer, and the Our. Other major rivers are the Alzette, the Attert, the Clerve, and the Wiltz. The valleys of the mid-Sauer and Attert form the border between the Gutland and the Oesling.

Luxembourg has a marine west coast climate (Köppen: Cfb), marked by high precipitation, particularly in late summer.
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« Reply #26 on: April 20, 2008, 08:52:21 pm »









                                                            Ethnicity





The people of Luxembourg are called Luxembourgers.

The native population has a Celtic base with a French and Germanic blend.

The indigenous population was augmented by immigrants from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy,
and Portugal throughout the twentieth century, with the majority coming from Portugal.

Since the beginning of the Yugoslav wars, Luxembourg has seen many immigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia. Annually, over 10,000 new immigrants arrive in Luxembourg, mostly from EU states, as well as Eastern Europe. As of 2000, there were 162,000 immigrants in Luxembourg, accounting for 37% of the total population.

There are an estimated 5,000 illegal immigrants in Luxembourg.

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« Reply #27 on: April 20, 2008, 08:54:12 pm »









                                                        Language





Three languages are recognized as official in Luxembourg: French, German, and Luxembourgish, a Franconian language of the Moselle region very similar to the local German dialect spoken in the neighboring part of Germany, except that it includes more borrowings from French. So in principal Luxembourgish is a High German dialect with the status of a national language. Apart from being
one of the three official languages, Luxembourgish is also considered the national language of the Grand Duchy; it is the mother tongue or "language of the heart" for nearly all Luxembourgers.

Each of the three languages is used as the primary language in certain spheres. Luxembourgish is
the language that Luxembourgers generally speak to each other, but it is not much written. Most official (written) business is carried out in French. German is usually the first language taught in
school and is the language of much of the media and of the church.[19] In fact, around 65% of
all articles published in Luxembourg are in the German language, 25% are in French and only 10%
in Luxembourgish.

Luxembourg's education system is trilingual: the first years of primary school are in Luxembourgish, before changing to German, while secondary school, the language of instruction changes to French. [20] However, as proficiency in all three languages is required for graduation from secondary school, half the students leave school without a certified qualification, with the children of immigrants being particularly disadvantaged.

In addition to the three official languages, English is taught in the compulsory schooling (mostly from the eighth grade, i.e. at the age between 12 to 14 years) and much of the population of Luxembourg can speak some simple English, at any rate in Luxembourg City. Portuguese and Italian, the languages of the two largest immigrant communities, are also spoken by large parts of the population, but by relatively few from outside their respective communities.
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« Reply #28 on: April 20, 2008, 09:15:24 pm »



NOTRE DAME CATHEDRAL






Religion



Luxembourg is a secular state, but the state recognises certain religions as officially-mandated religions. This gives the state a hand in religious administration and appointment of clergy, in exchange for which the state pays certain running costs and wages. Currently, religions covered by such arrangements are Roman Catholicism, Judaism, Greek and Russian Orthodoxy, Protestantism and Islam.

Since 1979 it has been illegal for the government to collect statistics on religious beliefs or practices
 It is estimated by the CIA Factbook that 87% of Luxembourgers are Roman Catholics, the remaining 13% being made up of Protestants, Orthodox Christians, Jews, Muslims and those of other or no religion.

According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005,[25] 44% of Luxembourg citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 28% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 22% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force".
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« Reply #29 on: April 20, 2008, 09:22:59 pm »








Culture


Luxembourg has been overshadowed by the culture of its neighbors, although, having been for much of its history a profoundly rural country, it retains a number of folk traditions. There are several notable museums, mostly located in the capital; these include the National Museum of History and Art (MNHA), the History Museum of the City of Luxembourg, and the new Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art (Mudam). The National Museum of Military History (MNHM) in Diekirch is especially known for its representations of the Battle of the Bulge. The city of Luxembourg itself is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, on account of the historical importance of its fortifications.

The country has produced some internationally known artists, including the painters Joseph Kutter and Michel Majerus, as well as the photographer Edward Steichen. Steichen's The Family of Man exhibition is now permanently housed in Clervaux, and it has been placed on UNESCO's Memory of the World register.

Luxembourg is the first city to be named European Capital of Culture for the second time. The first time was in 1995. In 2007, the European Capital of Culture will be a cross-border area consisting of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Rheinland-Pfalz and Saarland in Germany, the Walloon Region and the German-speaking part of Belgium, and the Lorraine area in France. The event will promote mobility and the exchange of ideas, crossing borders in all areas, physical, psychological, artistic and emotional.





Media



For many people in other parts of Europe, Luxembourg is best known for its radio and television stations, Radio Luxembourg and the RTL Group, Europe's largest TV, radio and production company.
It is also the uplink home of SES Astra, carrier of major European satellite services for Germany and Britain.

Studies show that the country Luxembourg consumes the most alcohol, according to Guinness World Records 2008. In the year 2003, on average each citizen consumed 2.8 gallons (12.6 liters) of pure alcohol. This however is a statistical phenomenon,not actual, as the low taxes on alcohol, cigarettes and petrol in Luxembourg mean that Belgians, French and Germans living close to the border buy these products in Luxembourg, and increase the sales without being counted as consumers in the statistical analyses.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg
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