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Phalanx formation

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April Kincaid
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« on: January 17, 2008, 01:29:20 pm »



phalanx (plural phalanxes or phalanges) is a rectangular mass military formation, usually composed entirely of heavy infantry armed with spears, pikes, or similar weapons. The troops were disciplined to hold a line which created a nearly impenetrable forest of points to the front. The phalanx is a hallmark of ancient Greek warfare. The word phalanx is derived from the Greek word phalangos, meaning the finger.
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« Reply #1 on: January 17, 2008, 01:29:55 pm »

The earliest known depiction of a phalanx-like formation occurs in a Sumerian stele from 2450 BC. Here the troops seem to have been equipped with spears, helmets, and large shields covering the whole body. Ancient Egyptian infantry were known to have employed similar formations. The first usage of the term phalanx comes from Homer's "(φαλαγξ)", used to describe hoplites fighting in an organized battle line. Homer used the term to differentiate the formation-based combat from the individual duels so often found in his poems.

Historians have not arrived at a consensus about the relationship between the Greek formation and these predecessors. The principles of shield wall and spear hedge were almost universally known among the armies of major civilizations throughout history, and so the similarities may be due to convergent evolution instead of diffusion.

Some historians and authorities date the formation of the hoplite phalanx of ancient Greece to the 8th century BC in Sparta, but this is being revised. It is more likely that the formation was devised in the 7th century BC after the introduction of the hoplon (a shield also known as the Aspis) by the city of Argos, which would have made the formation possible. This is further evidenced by the "Chigi vase", dated to 650 BC, identifying hoplites armed with aspis, spear, and panoply.
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« Reply #2 on: January 17, 2008, 01:30:35 pm »


Sumerian phalanx formation. Detail of a fragment of the victory stele of the king Eannatum of Lagash over Umma, called Stele of Vultures
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« Reply #3 on: January 17, 2008, 01:31:16 pm »

The hoplite phalanx was a formation in which the hoplites would line up in ranks in close order. In this formation, the hoplites would lock their shields together, and the first few ranks of soldiers would project their spears out over the first rank of shields, to try to gain the upper hand in the battle early on and as a result, allowing for the first three or so ranks of spearmen to engage their spears against the enemy. Therefore, one might say that the phalanx was essentially a formation in which the hoplites created a mass spear and shield wall. The strongest hoplites were on the right side of the phalanx. There would be leaders of each file in a phalanx. There was a rear rank officer, ouagoi, who kept order in the rear rank. An Enomotarch was the leader of an enomotia. While the phalanx was used in battle, a phalanx would charge and bash into the other enemies shield. The goal was to off-balance your enemy while thrusting them with your spear. If the phalanx's formation was breached then the hoplites would retreat and throw away their hoplon. There was little chance of survival in escape. The victors would reach their second phase where they would draw their swords and pursue the enemy. Usually peltasts or light cavalry would pursue the enemy. The effectiveness of the phalanx depended upon how well the hoplites could maintain this formation while in combat, and how well they could stand their ground, especially when engaged against another phalanx. It could be said that the main enemy of a phalanx was not the opposition forces (the majority of the soldiers would remain unengaged in a phalanx versus phalanx pushing match, because they were positioned at the rear and were responsible for keeping the front rows pressed forward) but fear. One theory was that the more disciplined and courageous the army the more likely it was to win - often engagements between the various city-states of Greece would be resolved by one side fleeing before the battle. The Greek word dynamis, the "will to fight", expresses the drive that kept hoplites in formation. The smallest phalanx group is called a lochos. There was two fifties (pentekostyses) in each lochos. There was two Enomotia in each Pentekostys. There was 4 lochos in each mora, and 1 additional rank of cavalry which is also called a mora.

Before the advance, both sides would sing the 'paean', the battle-hymn (notably, the Spartans rejected the use of a battle-hymn, thinking it needless bravado), then advance to the cadence (a marching beat) - on trumpets, pipes or drums. When nearing the enemy, the phalanx would break into a run that was sufficient enough to create momentum but not too much as to lose cohesion. Both sides would collide viciously, breaking many of the spears of the front row. The battle would then rely on the valour of the men in the front line and the rear men to maintain a push forward with their shields.

“Now of those, who dare, abiding one beside another, to advance to the close fray, and the foremost champions, fewer die, and they save the people in the rear; but in men that fear, all excellence is lost. No one could ever in words go through those several ills, which befall a man, if he has been actuated by cowardice. For ‘tis grievous to wound in the rear the back of a flying man in hostile war. Shameful too is a corpse lying low in the dust, wounded behind in the back by the point of a spear.” [Tyrtaeus: The War Songs Of Tyrtaeus]

The natural tendency during battle would be to drift towards the right side, or even for both lines to "wheel" as one side gave ground and the other advanced. This is because the individual hoplites carried their shields on their left arm, protecting not themselves but the soldier to the left (thus giving an incentive to stand very close together). Battles were won when the exposed right side (carrying spears) could overpower the opposing army's left side (carrying shields).

When in combat, the whole formation would consistently press forward trying to break the enemy formation; thus when two phalanx formations engaged, the struggle essentially became a pushing match, in which, as a rule, the deeper phalanx would almost always win, with very few recorded exceptions.
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« Reply #4 on: January 17, 2008, 01:32:27 pm »

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« Reply #5 on: January 18, 2008, 06:45:56 pm »

Doru spear

The doru was a type of spear in general use in the Hellenistic world. Although accounts of its length vary, it is usually now believed to have been seven to nine feet long (~2.1 - ~2.7m). It was held one-handed, the other hand holding the hoplite's aspis (shield). The front spearhead was usually a curved leaf shape, while the rear had a spike called a sauroter ("lizard-killer") which was used to stand the spear in the ground (hence the name). It was also used as a secondary weapon if the main shaft snapped, or for the rear ranks to finish off fallen opponents as the phalanx advanced over them.

There is debate as to whether a soldier wielded his spear above or below the shoulder. Held underhand, the thrusts would have been less powerful but under more control, and vice versa. It seems likely that both motions were used, depending on the situation. If attack was called for, an overhand motion was more likely to break through an opponent's defensive set-up and hit a vital area. The upward thrust is more easily deflected by armour due to its lesser leverage. However, when defending, an underarm carry absorbed more shock and could be "couched" under the shoulder for maximum stability. It should also be said that an overarm motion would allow more effective combination of the aspis and doru if the shield wall had broken down, while the underarm motion would be more effective when the shield had to be interlocked with those of one's neighbours in the battle-line. However, some Hoptlite reenacters have claimed that holding the spear under-arm would be hazardous for the rank behind as the sauroter would be level with the following man's groin. Thus, the rank behind would be injured when the front rank's spears were driven backwards by the shock of a charge and so these reenactors argue that spears were only used over-arm in the phalanx. Certainly, hoplites in the rows behind the lead made overhand thrusts. The rear ranks raised their spears upwards at increasing angles. This was an effective defence against missiles, deflecting their force.


[edit] Sarissa spear
The sarissa was the spear used by the Ancient Macedonian army, including king Philip II of Macedon, and later his son Alexander the Great, who conquered much of the known world, claiming it for the Kingdom of Macedon.

The actual length of the sarissa is now unknown, but apparently it was twice as long as the doru. This makes it at least 14 feet (~4.3m), but 18 (~5.5m) appears more likely. (The cavalry xyston was 12.5 feet (~3.8m), for comparison.)

Due to its great length and consequent weight and balance difference, a sarissa was wielded two-handed. This meant that the aspis was no longer a practical defense. Instead, the phalangites strapped a smaller pelte shield (usually reserved for light skirmishers - peltasts) to their left forearm. Although this reduced the shield wall, the extreme length of the spear prevented most enemies from closing, as the spears of the first three to five ranks could all be brought to bear in front of the front row. This spear had to be held underhand, as the shield would have obscured the soldier's vision had it been held overhead. It would also be very hard to remove a sarissa from anything it stuck in (the earth, shields, and soldiers of the opposition) if it were thrust downwards, due to its length. Sarissa troops gained a reputation for complete immobility at the battle-line. This allowed cavalry to wheel around opposed infantry and strike from the flanks or rear — a tactic used to great effect by the Macedonians, and later by the Romans.

« Last Edit: January 18, 2008, 06:46:40 pm by April Kincaid » Report Spam   Logged

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« Reply #6 on: January 18, 2008, 06:47:16 pm »

Sarissa spear

The sarissa was the spear used by the Ancient Macedonian army, including king Philip II of Macedon, and later his son Alexander the Great, who conquered much of the known world, claiming it for the Kingdom of Macedon.

The actual length of the sarissa is now unknown, but apparently it was twice as long as the doru. This makes it at least 14 feet (~4.3m), but 18 (~5.5m) appears more likely. (The cavalry xyston was 12.5 feet (~3.8m), for comparison.)

Due to its great length and consequent weight and balance difference, a sarissa was wielded two-handed. This meant that the aspis was no longer a practical defense. Instead, the phalangites strapped a smaller pelte shield (usually reserved for light skirmishers - peltasts) to their left forearm. Although this reduced the shield wall, the extreme length of the spear prevented most enemies from closing, as the spears of the first three to five ranks could all be brought to bear in front of the front row. This spear had to be held underhand, as the shield would have obscured the soldier's vision had it been held overhead. It would also be very hard to remove a sarissa from anything it stuck in (the earth, shields, and soldiers of the opposition) if it were thrust downwards, due to its length. Sarissa troops gained a reputation for complete immobility at the battle-line. This allowed cavalry to wheel around opposed infantry and strike from the flanks or rear — a tactic used to great effect by the Macedonians, and later by the Romans.

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« Reply #7 on: January 18, 2008, 06:49:09 pm »



Top: Traditional hoplite order of battle and advance.
Bottom: Epaminondas's diagonal phalanx at the battle of Leuctra. The strong left wing advanced while the weak right wing retreated or remained stationary. The red blocks show the placement of the elite troops within each phalanx
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« Reply #8 on: January 18, 2008, 06:50:24 pm »

Phalanx strategy

While the early history of the phalanx is largely one of two rather identical, inflexible formations pushing against each other until one broke, commanders did begin experimenting with the possibilities it offered. A famous example of this is shown during the Battle of Marathon (490 BC), in which the Athenians thinned out their phalanx and consequently lengthened their front. This minimized the casualties from the overwhelming Persian archers (the Medes) and prevented the Athenians from being outflanked by the numerically superior forces of Darius I. The eventual result was a double envelopment and by all accounts a crushing victory for Athens. Despite this demonstration of possible innovation, the superiority of Sparta at this form of warfare continued for another century.

Perhaps the most prominent example of the phalanx's evolution was the oblique advance, made famous in the Battle of Leuctra. There, the Theban general Epaminondas thinned out the right flank and center of his phalanx, and deepened his left flank to an unheard-of 50-rank. In doing so, Epaminondas reversed the status quo by refusing what was traditionally the phalanx's strong side (the right) and directly assaulting with his reinforced non-traditional left the enemy's elite right flank. This allowed the Thebans to break that part of the Spartan phalanx where the king and his agema (elite bodyguard) were located. In doing so, Epaminondas struck a decisive blow and routed the Spartan leadership. The Spartans were defeated, and their myth of invincibility in land warfare was proven false. Further to the north, the Macedonian monarchs Phillip II and Alexander III took Epaminondas' lessons and combined them with decisive cavalry charges--as made famous during the Battle of Issus[3].

Philip II of Macedon spent several years in Thebes as a hostage, and paid attention to Epaminondas' innovations. Upon return to his homeland, he quickly raised an infantry force that went beyond even what the Boeotians had. Phillip's phalangites were the first force of professional soldiers seen in Hellas outside of Sparta. They were armed with longer spears and were drilled more thoroughly in more evolved, complicated tactics and maneuvers. More importantly, though, Phillip's phalanx was part of a multi-faced, combined force that included a variety of skirmishers and cavalry, most notably the famous Companion cavalry. The Macedonian phalanx now was the anvil used to pin the center of the enemy line, while cavalry and more mobile infantry struck at the foe's flanks. Its supremacy over the more static armies fielded in Hellas was shown the Battle of Chaeronea, where Philip II's army crushed the allied Theban and Athenian phalanxes.

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« Reply #9 on: January 18, 2008, 06:51:20 pm »

Demise

The Hoplite Phalanx was weakest when facing an enemy fielding lighter and more flexible troops without its own such supporting troops. An example of this would be the Battle of Lechaeum, where an Athenian contigent led by Iphicrates routed an entire Spartan mora (a unit of anywhere from 500 to 900 hoplites). The Athenian force had a considerable proportion of light missile troops armed with javelins and bows which wore down the Spartans with repeated attacks, causing disarray in the Spartan ranks and an eventual rout when they spotted Athenian heavy infantry reinforcements trying to flank them by boat.

The Macedonian Phalanx had weaknesses similar to its hoplitic predecessor. Theoretically indestructible from the front, its flanks and rear were very vulnerable, and once engaged it could probably not easily disengage or redeploy to face a threat from those directions. Thus, a phalanx facing non-phalangite formations required some sort of protection on its flanks--lighter or at least more mobile infantry, cavalry, etc. This was shown at the Battle of Magnesia, where, once the Seleucid supporting infantry elements were driven off, the phalanx was helpless against its Roman opponents.

The Macedonian phalanx could also lose its cohesion while moving through broken terrain; doing so could create gaps between individual blocks/syntagmata, or could prevent a solid front within those sub-units as well. In this event, as in the battle of Pydna, the phalanx became vulnerable to attacks by more flexible units--such as Roman legionary centuries, which were able to avoid the sarissae and engage in hand-to-hand combat with the phalangites.

Finally, most of the phalanx-centric armies tended to lack supporting echelons behind the main line of battle. What that meant was that breaking through the Macedonian line of battle or compromising one of its flanks often meant ensuring victory.

The rise of Rome in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE saw the downfall of the majority of the states that fielded phalanxes as centerpieces to their armies. Following the incorporation of Macedon and various Hellenic poleis and leagues into Roman provinces, the phalanx ceased to be the major part of warfare that it was in the greater Hellenic world.

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« Reply #10 on: January 18, 2008, 06:52:56 pm »



Mixed pike and shot formations in a 17th-century battle.
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« Reply #11 on: January 18, 2008, 06:54:02 pm »

Revival

The phalanx never quite died out; the Roman legionaries at the time of Caesar and Arrian were known to have defended against (and even attacked) cavalry by using their pila as thrusting spears instead of thrown javelins. In the 3rd century the Roman army even directly adopted the phalanx formation for units campaigning in the East, such as the Legio II Parthica. The phalanx also formed an important part of the skoutatoi formations in the later phases of the Eastern Roman Empire.

The Viking-era swine array and the Anglo-Saxon shieldwall bore striking similarities to the early hoplite phalanx. The Frankish army at the Battle of Tours might have used a phalanx-like formation.

Later, the pike phalanx had a major revival in the form of the Scottish Schiltron and Swiss pike square (see also Landsknecht). The Swiss phalanx was much narrower than the hoplite phalanx, usually no more than 20 or 30 men wide, but considerably deeper. It had great success, particularly against French cavalry, for almost a half century, but its ascendancy ended with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano in 1515. It was replaced by the Spanish tercio, which combined the solidity of the phalanx with the flexibility and firepower of attached musket formations.

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« Reply #12 on: January 18, 2008, 06:55:01 pm »

The image of the men of the polis (the city-state) taking up arms together in defence of their country remains linked with the Ancient Greek culture. Many grave markers that have survived contain the phrase "died in the front line".

The Parosian poet Archilochus wrapped up a description of the Phalanx with a hint of Greek pride in his famous one-line summary: "The fox knows many tricks, the hedgehog one good one."

The Athenian playwright Aeschylus' grave says nothing of his literary career and marks only his participation at the battle of Marathon. Aeschylus' play The Persians is a celebration of that victory. Some of the abiding images of Grecian art, such as Polycleitus' doryphoros, "spear-bearer", contain the image of the warrior. (The spear in his right hand, since it was likely bronze, has been lost to time.) The attraction is that fear is the main enemy, and if a soldier succumbed he would leave his comrades unprotected. Often the comrade would be a family member or close friend (supposedly in the Theban Sacred Band the line would be composed of pairs of lovers). The valour in protection of your friends and country came to be the most prized attribute of a Greek. The Spartan poet Tyrtaeus wrote:

It is beautiful when a brave man of the front ranks
falls and dies, battling for his homeland...
Young men, fight shield to shield and never succumb
to panic or miserable flight,
but steel the heart in your chests with
magnificence and courage.
Forget your own life
when you grapple with the enemy.
— Tyrtaeus: The War Songs Of Tyrtaeus

or from a less warrior-oriented culture, Euripides the Athenian (from his diatribe against Hercules):

a man who has won a reputation for valour in his contests with beasts, in all else a weakling; who ne'er buckled shield to arm nor faced the spear, but with a bow, that coward's weapon, was ever ready to run away. Archery is no test of manly bravery; no! he is a man who keeps his post in the ranks and steadily faces the swift wound the spear may plough
This seems to represent the prevailing view of valour in the Hellenistic world. Grave markers proudly note death in the front rank, presence at great battles and acts of courage. Much of the art of Ancient Greece, therefore, reflects their desire for recognised bravery.

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« Reply #13 on: January 18, 2008, 06:56:10 pm »

Hoplites in Greek society

Hoplites supplied their own "panoply" (in this context meaning his armour and weapons, from which English has derived the meaning of splendour) from their own personal equipment. This would mean procuring a helmet, cuirass and greaves as well as a spear, sword and shield. As a result no phalanx was uniform (except the Spartans, who had their gear provided). This ensemble must have weighed 50 to 70 pounds (22.7 to 31.8 kg), and would have cost quite a few drachmae. As a result, hoplites had to be at least middle-class.

To illustrate this one should consider the Athenian class system of the Solon constitution. The four classes (in ascending order) were thetes, zeugites, hippeis and pentacosiomedimnoi (measured in produce per year of land). The three lower classes were drafted into the military according to what they could provide. The thetes rowed the vast Athenian fleet of ships; the hippeis, who could afford horses (an aristocratic animal, never used agriculturally) formed cavalry; and the zeugites formed the phalanx.

It was also necessary to be physically fit and able-bodied to fight as a hoplite, since the armour was heavy and allowed no ventilation (instant heat and sweating would result). The better nourished middle-class were more likely to be able to cope with the strain.

Hoplite armour may also explain the preference for beards among the Greeks. The one-piece helmet had no padding, so a beard (and long hair) acted as shock absorbers and kept the helmet from chafing the skin. Though only the Spartans grew their hair long in pre-Alexandrian times.

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« Reply #14 on: January 18, 2008, 06:57:18 pm »



Makedonische Phalanx

Quelle: http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/gabrmetz/gabr0066.htm (Air War College, USA)
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