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Library of Alexandria (Original)

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« Reply #30 on: March 31, 2008, 01:29:20 pm »

dhill757

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A list of ancient libraries: http://www.innvista.com/society/education/info/anclib.htm
Ancient Libraries

This is a list of ancient libraries, and a few early medieval ones, with information as available about each. They are classified according to region of the world. There are many more, but the information on them is not currently available for this site. The buildings of all of those listed (and the contents of some) have been destroyed by natural disaster, by invading armies, or by order of religious leaders. However, there have been remains of many found by archaeologists.

Americas

Mexico

* Mani (Yucatán)
About 100,000 Maya texts were ordered by Bishop Diego de Landa to be burned. They contained hundreds or thousands of years of written records. The information included genealogies, biographies, collections of songs, science books, history, prophecy, astrology, and ritual.
* Tenochtitlán
In 1528, the first archbishop of Mexico, Don Juan de Zumárraga, ordered every book, codex, and hieroglyph -- numbering about 700,000 -- to be burned.
* Texcoco
Libraries, including some with vast information on medicinal plants, and books found elsewhere were ordered by the Spanish to be burned.
* Surviving Ancient Books
a. Dresden Codex
It pertains mainly to the Maya cycles of time. It also includes descriptions of solar eclipses, stories of Quetzalcoatl, and Maya ceremonies.
b. Grolier Codex
It contains information on scientific and religious matters.
c. Madrid Codex
It contains a 70-page document and a 42-page document on scientific and religious matters.
d. Mendoza Codex
It is one of the oldest of ancient Mexico, covering the history of the Mixtec people from 692 CE. It is written on deerskin in book form and unfolds like an accordion. The writing contains pictographic, ideographic and rebus forms.
e. Paris Codex
It is an 11-page document containing an account of Maya history.
f. Popul Vuh
It is the prime source for the Maya cosmology, setting out the concept of the cycle of the Suns. This is not original book, but one written from memory.
g. Tro-Coretesianus Codex
It is a Maya codex in two parts and is an astrological work that was used by priests.

Africa

Carthage

* Thamugadi
Funds to build this library were provided by Quintianus Rogatianus. The plan was a square, with a forecourt surrounded by white limestone columns. In the walls were niches for cases that held rolls. Rooms on each side served as reading-rooms. The building was able to hold about 23,000 rolls. This was the only library in the Roman Empire west of Italy.
Egypt

* Abu Simbel Temple
Scribes were assigned as the keepers of the books in the library. The library consisted of theological works, technical writings, literature, history annals, and practical texts. Other temple libraries were similar to this one.
* Alexandria
The most famous library in antiquity was created some time after 297 BCE as part of a school or museum by Ptolemy II (Philadelphus). The staff was made up of scholars in various fields.They did research, editing of works of previous writers, and carried on experiments. Known as the Brucheion Library, it had copies of all known books in the city. Agents were sent throughout the known world to acquire other texts. Ships entering the harbour were forced to lend books aboard to be copied. According to tradition, seventy Hebrews translated the Scriptures into the Greek Septuagint here. Many outstanding figures served as head librarians or were associated with the library. The collection, estimated to be over 700,000 rolls, was classified by Callimachus. Alexandria was burned by Ptolemy VIII (Cacergetes) in a civil war in 89-88 BCE, causing many scholars to leave. The library was reconstituted, but it was never as great. It was again partly destroyed in 47 BCE. Later, 200,000 rolls taken from Pergamum were added. Some rolls were taken from Alexandria to Rome in the Christian era. Alexandria was burned in 273 CE by Roman Emperor Aurelian. More damage was done by Christian bishop Theophilus in 391 CE. Whatever was left was destroyed by Moslem conqueror Omar in 645 CE. A replacement for this famous library was finally opened in 2001.
* Edfu
It was known as the House of Papyrus. Over the entrance was a large carved palette. On the walls of the interior, there were texts and emblems of the instruments used by the scribes. A catalogue, in two parts, of hieratical books was graven on one wall. The first specified twelve coffers of works. The second specified twenty-two coffers. No remains of papyrus or parchment have been found.
* Heliopolis
In the Hall of Rolls of a temple was an early medical library, which contained long works with lists of diseases and cures.
* Hermopolis
In the temple of Thoth one of the largest papyri collections on medicine was found. There were six intact, plus fragments of many others. A scribe-priest was known as the keeper of the sacred books. His assistant, a woman, was known as the lady of letters, mistress of the house of books. There was also a medical school at the temple.
* Tell-El-Amarna
The Place of the Records of the palace of the King, the library of King Amenhotep IV, existed about 1350 BCE. The contents were clay tablets in Babylonian cuneiform. They were mainly correspondence between the king and vassal states and foreign rulers in Asia Minor. Within these letters is much social and economic information. Works that may have been written on media other than tablets have not survived.
* Thebes
The House of Writings, the collection of King Khufu, existed about 2600 BCE. There is no information available on this library.
* Thebes
The Healing Place of the Soul, the palace collection of King Ramesses II, existed about 1300 BCE. It contained about 20,000 rolls and was probably a religious or philosophic library. Amen-en-haut was one of the librarians.
Mauritania

* Chinguetti
This existing collection contains centuries-old manuscripts, among the oldest in Islam. These are documents of the village when it was a flourishing city along the ancient caravan route. They are being protected by today's villagers.

Asia

Armenia

* Edessa
This was a consolidation of the libraries of the temples at Nisibis and Sinope. The books were in Greek and Syriac.
Asia Minor

* Ephesus
The Library of Celsus was set up by the governor, Tiberius Julius Aquila Polemaeanus, who left money to purchase and to maintain the books. This was a donation to the city and a memorial to his father. It was completed by his heirs.
* Halicarnassus
It contained mostly Greek works, including those of Euripedes, Herodutus, Homer, and Longianus. It was open to the public so that young people could learn.
* Hattusas
This library was in operation from the 17th century BCE to the 13th century BCE. The mass of tablets from a royal palace was created by an unknown monarch. The tablets dealt with governmental activity, prosaic handbooks, Hittite renderings of Sumerian and Babylonian epics, religion, myths, legends, and historical annals. There were also detailed bibliographic entries and information on shelving.
* Pergamum
This library was founded by Attalus I about 200 BCE and lasted for several hundred years. It was located next to the temple of Athena. A listing of the holdings was drawn up. His son Eumenes II brought it to its peak. He strove to have the library to be equal to the one at Alexandria. This caused the Egyptians to halt the export of papyrus to Pergamium. As a result, the librarians developed a new form of parchment as a replacement. Eventually, the library declined and suffered loss of rolls to the Romans. These may have been returned by Augustus. Later, some volumes were taken to Samarkand.
* Rhodiapolis
This library contained mostly works in Greek. Included were those of a local physician, who was considered to be the Homer of medical poetry.
Assyria

* Ashur
This library, created by Tiglath-Pileser I, operated between 1115 BCE and 1077 BCE. This king was probably the first founder of a library. Some of the tablets were literary, but most of the writings were professional for use by scribes and priests. The greatest number dealt with omens determined by astrology, sacrificial animals, and natural events. The next largest group were the standardized handbooks of vocabulary lists, plants, trees, animals, gods, place names, multiplication tables, and astronomy. There were also some hymns and musical compositions.
* Dura
A unique set of parchments and papyri were found. They contained literary and religious texts, official and business documents, and military archives. They were written in Aramaic, Pahlavi, Greek, and Latin.
* Kalakh
This library existed in the 7th and 8th centuries B.C.E. The books included the reignal year of the king, and the month and the day that they were written. The catalogue entry includes the title of the work, the number of lines, the contents, and the opening words. There appears to have been some sort of classification of tyhe books.
* Nineveh, Assyria
One of the greatest libraries in the ancient world was a private collection of King Ashurbanipal and in use in the period from 1115 BCE to 1077 BCE. It contained about 1,500 titles, many of which were in multiple copies. The largest number of them were in technical literature of religion and magic. The next largest number was in scholarly texts, containing lists of cuneiform signs, words and names, and dictionaries for translating from Sumerian into Akkadian. There were such literary works as The Epic of Gilgamesh, The Epic of Creation, The Myth of Atrachasis, and The Epic of Irra. Tablets were taken from the temples of Babylon, from the library in Ashur, and from private collections to add to this library. Also, there were about 300 wooden boards containing written works. Theft of the holdings was a threat that caused security measures to be imposed. There were borrowing privileges with some of the collections of the day, particularly for specific professions.
Bithnya

* Heraclea
In about 365 BCE, the ruler Clearchus opened a library to the public.
China

* Hopei
This was a Buddhist Grotto Library. The texts were carved on stone, and are well preserved. Confuscian and Taoist works are included, but Buddhist scriptures constitute the largest collection.
* Loyang
Lao-tse, according to tradition, was the keeper of the imperial library located here. This was the most famous library in ancient China. It was built up during the Chou dynasty. However, during the succeeding dynasty, all books, except a few topics, were publicly burned.
* Tun Huang
This is a cave library containing a collection of 15,000 rolls and a few books. The writing, some dating at 400 CE, was on paper, which was well preserved. An early printed work in roll form is dated May 11, 868, CE.
Cyprus

* Citium
Writing was with red and black ink on marble tablets. One tablet contained a record of payments.
India

* Taxila
It is the oldest known library in India. It flourished more than one thousand years, up to the middle of the 5th century CE. It was located in a university centre.
Israel

* Caesarea
This was a Christian library founded by Origen in the 3rd century CE. It was passed on to Pamphilus. It survived the burning of the Christian libraries by Emperor Diocletian in 303 CE. This library was used by Eusebius in 30 CE and by Jerome in the 4th century CE. It survived until Palestine was captured by the Persians in 614 CE, when all Christian records were destroyed.
* Jerusalem
The books of the Law, the writings of Moses and the prophets, the book of Joshua, and sermons and exhortations of the prophets were preserved in the Hebrew temple. Most of the library was destroyed during the Babylonian captivity. However, much of it was restored by Nehemiah and Ezra after the return of the Israelites. Again, much of it was lost when Antiochus destroyed Jerusalem. It may have been re-established by Judas Maccabeus. There are several references to the collections in the Old Testament of the Bible.
* Khirbet Qumran
Remnants of more than 600 rolls of papyrus and thin sheet copper were found in several caves. This collection is known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. Included on the rolls are some books of the Old Testament of the Bible, a collection of hymns, a manual of discipline, and other religious works. Apparently, there was a type of master library maintained with a scriptorium. These are works of an Essene group, dating to about 125 BCE to 70 CE.
* Lachish
Lachish letters were found on eighteen inscribed potsherds. Also found was a clay seal having the marks of papyrus fibres.
* Taanach
It was operating in 1400 BCE. In one room was found a book-chest made of baked clay, which contained tablets in the Babylonian language.
* Types of Libraries in Israel
a. central library at Jerusalem
b. temple libraries
c. local public libraries, including a special Greek public library
d. synagogue libraries, the most used
e. monastic libraries of the Essenes
Korea

* Kyongu
The oldest known printed text, found here, was printed between 704 CE and 751 CE. It is a scroll which is twenty feet long. The printing was done with twelve wooden blocks. The paper scroll was made from fibres of the paper-mulberry tree. The scroll was located in the Pulguksa Temple.
Media

* Istakhr
It was called Diz-i-Nipisht. It held the original Avesta, the sacred book of the Zoroastrians.Mesopotamia

* Erach
This library in the Red Temple existed about 3000 BCE. It contained clay tablets in pictographic script.
* Nimrud
One room of this library contained treaties by an Assyrian king with neighbouring princes. One wing had records, including tablets concerning taxation and trade, and agriculture and administrative reports.
* Nippur
This library existed in the mid 3rd millenium BCE. An excavation uncovered a group of tablets dealing with the following: geographical names, a list of gods, a list of professions, a list of Sumerian works of literature, writing exercises, and a number of hymns. The owner of the collection is not known.
* Tello
This library existed about 2350 BCE. It is a collection of about 30,000 tablets in cuneiform.
* Ur
A Great House of Tablets, a building housing records, existed about 2100 BCE. It contained a well-organized law library or legal archive. One set of tablets contained a code of laws 300 years before Hammurabi. There were also the records of a national court for over a century.
Phoenicia

* Sidon
It was so capably kept that it became a byword. The historical writings were of great exactness and were preserved in archives. The library was readily accessible and open to the public.
* Tyre
The library had authentic records that were preserved in archives. Like the one at Sidon, it was readily accessible and open to the public.
Persia

* Nisibis
About 485 CE, the Nestorian Christians who fled from Syria built this library. It was a good source of Greek science and philosophy. Scholars from Greece were attracted here. By 750 CE, the Moslems, seeing the value of this library, translated many of the books into Arabic.
Syria

* Damascus
A royal library was established in the late 7th century CE under the Umayyid dynasty. In 690 CE, the archives were separated from the literary and religious works and placed into a House of Archives. The palace library was open for use by students and scholars. In it were copies of books obtained from all parts of the known world. They included works on alchemy, medicine, astrology, literature, history, philosophy, and the Moslem religion.
* Ebla
It is dated to 2300 BCE to 2250 BCE. A collection of about 2,000 clay tablets was found in an archive room in a buried royal palace. They contained the following: administrative records dealing with the distribution of textiles and metals; cereals, olive oil, agricultural land, and breeding of animals; names of professions, geographical locations, birds, and fish; incantations; and the text of a Sumerian myth. The writing on the tablets was in Sumerian and Eblaite.
* Palmyra
There were hundreds of inscriptions, dealing with fixed tariffs, Queen Zenobia, the priesthood, and wine consumption.
* Ugarit
A library in the royal palace of King Nigmed existed about the 13th century BCE. The clay tablets included diplomatic correspondence, treaties, laws, some history, some commercial texts, and a dictionary of Ugartic and Sumerian. Also at the same time was one in the home of the high priest. It was mainly theological; but there were also some epic poetyry, magic lore, history, scientific dictionaries (unilingual and bilingual). There were also genealogical lists of kings and priests.
Turkey

* Boghaz Kui
It contained over 10,000 clay tablets in two sections. One set was on black and grey clay. The other was on yellow and brown clay.
* Debir
The community was known as "booktown." The library held Hittite books.

Europe

Byzantium

* Constantinople
The imperial library was established by Emperor Constantine between 330 CE and 336 CE. He sent agents throughout the Roman Empire to search for Christian books for it. His collection included many writings of Greek and Latin secular authors. There were only about 7,000 books at the time of his death.
* Constantinople
The library of the Academy, a school of philosophy, was founded by Theodosius II in the 5th century CE. In the early 8th century CE, books containing religious pictures were sometimes destroyed as they were considered as heathen by the iconoclasts. The library flourished until the end of that century.
Greece

* Athens
There is some uncertainty about the accuracy of this one, which is said to have existed about 560 BCE. A collection was given to the city by the tyrant Pisistratus. The city opened it to the public and added to it and took care of it. It is reported to have been taken by Xerxes to Persia when he conquered by Athens. When King Seleucus conquered Persia, he returned the books to Athens.
* Athens
Plato was one of the first Greeks to own a library. Part of it was composed of a purchase of the library of Philolaus of Tarentum. Another part was obtained in Syracuse.
* Athens
Late in the 4th century BCE, Aristotle owned a library at his Peripatetic school. It included several hundred volumes, large for the time, that had been acquired by purchase and by gift. It contained his own writings and was well-rounded in the subject areas. He made it available to his pupils and friends.
* Athens
In this library of the 4th century BCE were official copies of plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripedes. These were to ensure that only authentic versions of the plays were produced. The books could be read and copied, but they could not be removed.
* Athens
This library was located in the Ptolemain secondary school. Students presented one hundred books to the school annually as a graduation gift.
* Athens
A library was established by Emperor Hadrian in the early 2nd century BCE. The library was a square enclosed by a colonnade of 120 columns. There were spacious rooms of alabaster and gold, filled with paintings and statuary.There were rooms for reading and lectures. There was, also, a central area from which books may have been delivered to readers. Nothing is known about the types of books in the library.
* Cos
In the period of about 200-175 B.C.E., well-to-do citizens subscribed to the **** of a library building. They contributed to a book-purchase fund or they donated books.
* Rhodes
This library existed during the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.E., possibly at the university. There was a subject catalogue that was arranged alphabetically.
Italy

* Como
It was established in the late 1st century B.C.E. by Pliny the Younger in this, his home town. He endowed it with a million sesterces (the common unit of computation of Roman money).
* Herculaneum
This was the private library of L. Calpurnius Piso, a collection of about 3,000 rolls, encased in wooden boxes. The majority of the rolls were philosophic works of the Sophis school. There were some works of medicine, literary criticism, and general literature. Most of them were in Greek, but there were some in Latin. The library was destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
* Rome and Atrium
This collection of Cicero was maintained both in the city and in country villas. A specialist was used in setting up the libraries. Highly trained Greek slaves served as library personel. Copying was a major work, but reshelving, repairing, and keeping the catalogue up-to-date were functions that they performed. Parchment was used to place the author's name on the end of each roll. There was also the problem of theft that had to be handled. This library was used primarily by researchers.
* Rome
This private collection of Lucullus existed after 66 BCE. It was collected in Asia Minor as booty. The layout of the building was based on the library at Pergamum. In a room about three meters by three meters, the walls were lined with shelves with rolls piled high. The books were in Greek; but later, some in Latin were added. The library was open to friends and relatives of Lucullus, but also to Greeks living in Rome. Patrons from Greek states in Asia Minor came to use the library.
* Rome
The first-known public library, the Atrium Libertatis, located on the Aventine Hill, was opened about 37 BCE. The founder was G. Asinius Pollio, who, with his own wealth, consolidated several collections and reorganized the public archives there. The interior was adorned with the busts of the great writers. The collection was made up of Greek and Latin literature.
* Rome
Emperor Augustus built this library during the period of 36 BCE and 28 BCE, locating it in the temple of Apollo, on the Palatine Hill. It was divided into Greek and Latin sections. The first librarian was Pompeius Macer, and a later librarian was Julius Hyginus. The library was enlarged by Emperors Tiberius and Caligula. Although damaged by fire twice, it lasted into the 4th century CE.
* Rome
There was a library located in the Porticus Octaviae, which was believed to have been founded by Octavia, sister of Augustus. The first librarian was Caius Melissus. The library was damaged by fire about 80 CE, but it survived into the 2nd century CE.
* Rome
Emperor Vespasian established a library in 76 CE. It included books taken from Jerusalem when that city was captured by the Romans. According to Josephus, the Jewish historian, it contained copies of the books of Moses. The library was damaged by fire about 190 CE, but it was restored and lasted into the 4th century CE.
* Rome
The Ulpian Library, the greatest of the Roman libraries, was founded in 114 CE by Emperor Trajan. It may have been based on the private library of Epaphrodites of Cherones. The collection included about 20,000 rolls, which was divided into Greek and Latin sections. Early in the 4th century BCE, it was moved to the Baths of Diocletian. However, it was later returned to its original site. It was still in existence in 455 CE.
* Rome
A library was begun at the Baths of Caracalla in 212 CE and completed ten or more years later. There were two rectangular chambers set into the enclosure wall, opening at the front to the colonnade. Along the short walls were niches for bookcases.
* Rome
In the latter half of the 4th century CE, Pope Damasus I established a library in the church of San Lorenzo. At first, it was only an archive. Later, this was transferred to the lateran Palace. Eventually, the library included not only Bibles but also various Christian theologcal writings. It did not include non-Christian writings for a long time because of the official attitude toward those.
* Squillace
In the mid 6th century, Cassiodorus established a library at his monastery, Vivarium. He purchased books for it in northern Africa. Included in his library were works of major pagan Greek and Latin writers. His scriptorium produced many copies of Christian writings.
Spain

* Granada
About 1510, all Arabic manuscripts ordered by Cardinal Ximenes were ordered to be burned.


[This message has been edited by dhill757 (edited 08-09-2004).]


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