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ITALY - Prehistory

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Bianca
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« Reply #15 on: November 28, 2007, 11:07:21 pm »





During the first quarter of the twelfth century b.c. the Bronze-Age civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean came to an abrupt end.

The royal palaces of Pylos, Tiryns, and Mycenae in mainland Greece were destroyed by violence, and the Hittite kingdom that had ruled over Asia Minor was likewise swept away. The causes and reasons for this major catastrophe have long been debated without much scholarly consensus (see Drews 1993, 33-96). Apart from the archaeological evidence indicating the violent destruction of many sites, the only ancient accounts relating to this phenomenon come from Egypt. The most important one is a text inscribed on the temple of Medinet Habu at Thebes, which accompanies carved scenes portraying the pharaoh’s military victory over a coalition of peoples who had attempted to enter the Nile Delta by land and sea. The text reads in part:



Year 8 under the majesty of Ramses III ({nbsp}= 1179 b.c.). The foreign countries made a conspiracy in their islands. All at once the lands were removed and scattered in the fray. No land could stand before their arms, from Hatti, Kode, Carchemish, Arzawa, and Alashiya on being cut off at one time. A camp was set up in one place in Amor ({nbsp}= Syria). They desolated its people, and its land was like that which has never come into being. They were coming forward toward Egypt while the flame was prepared before them. Their confederation was the Philistines, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denyen, and Weshesh, lands united. They laid their hands upon the lands as far as the circuit of the earth, their hearts confident and trusting: "Our plans will succeed!" . . . Those who reached my frontier, their seed is not; their heart and their soul are finished forever and ever. Those who came forward together on the sea, the full flame was in front of them at the river mouths, while a stockade of lances surrounded them on the shore. They were dragged in, enclosed, and prostrated on the beach, killed and made into heaps from tail to head. Their ships and their goods were as if fallen into the water. I have made the lands turn back from even mentioning Egypt; for when they pronounce my name in their land, then they are burned up. . . . (Pritchard 1969, 262-3)

                                           


The carved Egyptian scenes of these so-called peoples of the sea show them not only in boats but also on land with wagons, women, and children, suggesting that this abortive invasion of Egypt involved some kind of migration.

Much scholarly effort has been vainly expended in trying to identify the groups mentioned in this text. Suffice it to say that whatever was responsible for the collapse of the Mycenaean and Hittite civilizations, the end of the second and the beginning of the first millennia b.c. witnessed major changes in the cultural, linguistic, and political geography of the eastern Mediterranean.

Archaeology reveals that in mainland Greece the destruction of the Mycenaean palace-centered states and economies was followed by a drastic decline in the material culture and the abandonment of many sites. In fact, historians have traditionally labeled the period c. 1100-800 b.c. the Greek dark age, characterized by village societies headed by local chieftains, from which the city-state eventually arose.




ISOLE EOLIE/LIPARI  -  LIPARI ISLANDS


The unsettled conditions of the late second millennium b.c. might have extended as far west as eastern Sicily. Coastal sites exposed to sea raids were abandoned, and the inhabitants occupied defensible positions of the interior, such as Pantalica near Syracuse (Holloway 1981, 107-14). It is also noteworthy that at the close of the Bronze Age the major site in the Lipari Islands met with violent destruction and was reoccupied by people from the Apennine Culture of Italy.
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« Reply #16 on: November 28, 2007, 11:14:33 pm »






The most important technological advance which came in the wake of the collapse of the Bronze-Age civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean was ironworking.

Iron ore is much more plentiful than copper and tin and even has a lower melting point, but the methods necessary to extract iron from ore and to work it into a much stronger metal are far more complex than bronzeworking. Simple smelting produces only an unusable iron bloom, which has to be further refined by repeated hammering and controlled heating.

The Hittites had already mastered this technology during the late Bronze Age, and with the collapse of the Hittite kingdom in the twelfth century this knowledge was dispersed among other people, thus spawning the beginning of the Iron Age. Iron metallurgy did not reach Italy until the ninth century b.c., and even then it was two or more centuries before iron displaced bronze as the most commonly used metal.

Thus, archaeologists date the beginning of the Iron Age in Italy to c. 900 b.c.; and although the Italian Bronze Age is generally assigned to the period c. 1800-1100 b.c. and is subdivided into early, middle, and late phases, the 200-year interval between the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age has been labeled the Final Bronze Age.

During this period the practice of cremation spread south of the Po Valley and is attested at numerous sites throughout the peninsula.

                                     

                                       ANCIENT ETRURIA


Since this cultural tradition developed into the Villanovan Culture which prevailed in Etruria and much of the Po Valley c. 900-700 b.c., modern archaeologists have devised the term "Proto-Villanovan" to describe the cremating cultures of the Italian Final Bronze Age. As might be expected, the spread of cremation throughout the peninsula has been the subject of much speculation and has been variously explained:7


(a) cultural interaction between the Terramara Culture of the north and the Apennine Culture of the south to produce a composite culture of the Final Bronze Age;

(b) the extension of Terramara cremating people and their culture to the south beyond the Po Valley; or

(c) the migration or invasion of new people from the Danubian Urnfield Culture.




MAP OF ROMAGNA


The fact that some of the earliest urnfield sites of peninsular Italy are located on the coast (e.g. Pianello in Romagna and Timmari in Apulia) is interpreted by some archaeologists as an indication that cremating people had come into Italy by sea, and that their migration was part of the larger upheaval which affected the eastern Mediterranean at the end of the Bronze Age (so Hencken 1968, 78-90).
On the other hand, the same data can be explained in terms of indigenous coastal settlements adopting new cultural traits as the result of commercial interaction with foreigners.

In any case, by the end of the Final Bronze Age inhumation had reemerged as the dominant funerary custom of southern Italy, but cremation continued to be an integral aspect of the Villanovan Culture of northern and much of central Italy.

Was the widespread practice of cremation during the Final Bronze Age a passing fad, so to speak, adopted and then abandoned by the indigenous peoples of the peninsula, or was it introduced by new peoples who were eventually absorbed into the inhuming tradition of the south?

This puzzle may serve as an instructive illustration of the limitations of modern archaeology in examining prehistoric peoples solely from the surviving remains of their material culture.
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« Reply #17 on: November 28, 2007, 11:18:39 pm »









                                     Ancient Languages and Modern Archaeology






With the advent of the early Iron Age in Italy in the ninth century b.c., regional differences begin to manifest themselves in the archaeological record, probably reflecting in some degree the linguistic and ethnic diversity which later characterized pre-Roman Italy in historical times.

For example, to take funerary customs, for which archaeological data are the most plentiful, inhumation predominated in the region east and south of an imaginary line drawn between Rimini and Rome, whereas cremation was the most prevalent burial custom west and north of this line. The inhabitants of the latter area placed the ashes in a biconical urn, covered it with an inverted bowl or helmet, and deposited the vessel in a pit grave. This culture, which was common throughout Etruria and much of the Po Valley, takes its name from Villanova, a hamlet near Bologna in southeastern Cisalpine Gaul, which was the first site of this type excavated by Count Gozzadini during the1850s.

By the middle of the eighth century b.c. the Villanovan Culture of Etruria was evolving into what soon became the Etruscan civilization, while the Villanovan Culture of the eastern Po Valley developed into what archaeologists call the Este Culture.

Linguistically, the former was characterized by a non-Indo-European language whose origin and connection with other known languages are still enigmatic. The tongue of the Este Culture, Venetic, belongs to the Italic family of Indo-European languages.. This development may illustrate once again the limitations of archaeological data, for if, as seems likely, the Etruscan and Venetic languages were already established in their respective areas at the beginning of the Iron Age, these two populations, though linguistically distinct, for a time shared a common material culture.

Similarly, of the four major Italic languages (Venetic, Latin, Umbrian, and Oscan) the first two, though separated by considerable geographical distance, are linguistically more closely related to one another than they are to Umbrian, while Oscan and Umbrian are themselves clearly kindred and are even grouped together by historical linguists into a larger Sabellian class of Italic. A likely explanation for this circumstance is suggested by the geographical distribution of these dialects during historical times: namely, that at some time during prehistory people speaking what later became the Venetic-Latin branch of Italic split into two separate groups; and furthermore, this separation might have been caused by the interposition of a population speaking what later evolved into the Sabellian dialects. If so, we would have another instance in which major linguistic and possibly ethnic differences were brought about by movements of people in prehistoric Italy, and these movements have thus far not been clearly detectable in the archaeological record.

A third such case is provided by some of the inhabitants along the eastern coast of Italy, for although the preservation in historical times of tribal names such as Iapyges in Apulia and Iapusci in Umbria, related to Illyrian Iapudes, strongly suggests migration across the Adriatic, archaeology cannot offer clear proof concerning when Illyrians might have established themselves in Italy. In conclusion, the current state of our archaeological knowledge of prehistoric Italy and of the country’s pre-Roman linguistic history testifies to the extraordinarily complex cultural processes operating before the dawn of history and to our inability to fathom them except in the broadest of terms.

 

 




1. For general surveys see Whatmough 1937; L. Palmer 1954, 3-49; Devoto 1978, 1-72; Salmon 1982, 1-39; Penney in CAH IV. 1988, 720-38; Wallace 1998; and Baldi 1999, 118-95. See n.1 of chapter 5 for references to major collections of texts.

2. For the overall problem of correlating archaeological finds and the emergence of various languages see Renfrew 1987 and Mallory in Blench and Spriggs 1997, 93-121, which treat this matter in reference to the Indo-European family of languages. See Drews 1988b for this question in reference to the prehistory of Greek. See Dench 1995, 186 ff. for this issue in reference to the early inhabitants of the central Apennines.

3. For the problem of correlating funerary remains with society as a whole during historical times of classical antiquity see Morris 1992, 1-30.

4. For general but detailed treatments of the prehistoric peoples and cultures of Italy, see Trump 1966; Barfield 1971; Potter 1979, 30-51; Holloway 1981; and MacKendrick 1983, 1-27. For the prehistory of the Mediterranean as a whole, see Trump 1980.

5. On this topic see Roberts 1993 and Spindler 1994. As this book was written and revised, new findings concerning the Ice Man have continued to be announced. For the current state of knowledge consult the Ice Man’s official website: www.iceman.it.

6. In addition to the works cited above in n.4, good treatments of the Bronze and Iron Ages of Italian prehistory are to be found in Hencken 1968, 27-96 and the essay by Peroni (containing further bibliography) in Ridgway and Ridgway 1979, 7-30.

7. For a general survey of this question, with further modern bibliography, see Fugazzola Delpino in Ridgway and Ridgway 1979, 31-48.

------

Copyright © 2005 by the Regents of the University of California.


http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9192/9192.ch01.html
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« Reply #18 on: November 29, 2007, 09:04:43 am »



Their loving embrace has lasted an
eternity - well 5000 years
to be precise









                            WORKERS FIND PREHISTORIC ROMEO AND JULIET LOCKED IN EMBRACE





Associated Press

ROME - They died young and, by the looks of it, in love.

Two 5,000-year-old skeletons found locked in an embrace near the city where Shakespeare set
the star-crossed tale ROMEO AND JULIET have sparked theories the remains of a far more ancient
love story have been found.

Archaeologists unearthed the skeletons dating back to the late Neolithic period outside Mantua,
25 miles south of Verona, the city of Shakespeare's story ofdoomed love. 

Buried between 5,000 and 6,000 years ago, the pair are believed to have beena man and a woman
and are thought to have died young, because their teethwere found intact, said Elena Menotti, the
archaeologist who led the dig.

"As far as we know, it's unique," Menotti said.  "Double burials from the Neolithic are unheard of, and
these are even hugging."

Archaeologists digging in the region have found some 30 burial sites, all single, as well as the remains
of prosperous villages filled with artifacts made of flint,pottery and animal horns.

Although the Mantua pair strike an unusual and touching pose, archaeologistshave found other prehist-
oric burials in which the dead hold hands or have other contact, said Luca Bondioli, an anthropologist at
Rome's National Prehistoric and Ethbnographic Museum.

Bondioli, who was not involved in the Mantua dig, said the find has "more of anemotional than a
scientific value.".  But it does highlight how the relationship people have with each other and with
death has not changed much from theperiod in which humanity first settled in villages, learning to
farm the land andtame animals, he said.

"The Neolithic is a very formative period for our society," he said.  "It was when the roots of our
religious sentiment were formed."

Menotti said the burial was "a ritual, but we have to find out what it means."

Experts might never determine the exact nature of pair's relationship, but Menotti said she had
little doubt it was born of a deep sentiment.

The couple's burial site was located Monday during construction for a factory.  Experts will now
study the artifacts and the skeletons to determine the burial site's age and how old the two were
when they died.
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« Reply #19 on: November 29, 2007, 09:11:24 am »







                                               Locked in an eternal embrace





 8th February, 2007
The Daily Mail, UK



"It is the city where the exiled Romeo dreamed he died and Juliet's kisses breathed life back into his body.

Tragically, the lifeless bodies of Shakespeare's star-crossed lovers would soon lie side by side."



Yesterday at Mantua, in an amazing echo of that heartrending story, archaeologists revealed the discovery of a couple locked in a tender embrace, one that has endured for more than 5,000 years.

The find was unearthed by experts digging at a neolithic site at a less than romantic industrial estate. Scientists are to examine the skeletons to try to establish how old they were when they died and how long they have been buried.

One theory being examined is that the man was killed and the woman then sacrificed so that his soul would be accompanied in the after life.

Elena Menotti, who is leading the dig at Valdaro near Mantua in northern Italy, said: 'I am so excited about this discovery.

"We have never found a man and a woman embraced before and this is a unique find.

"We have found plenty of women embracing children but never a couple. Much less a couple hugging -- and they really are hugging. It's possible that the man died first and then the woman was killed in sacrifice to accompany his soul.

"From an initial examination they appear young as their teeth are not worn down but we have sent the remains to a laboratory to establish their age at the time of death.

"They are face to face and their arms and legs are entwined and they are really hugging.

"I am so thrilled at this find. I have been involved in lots of digs all over Italy but nothing has excited me as much as this."

"I've been doing this job for 25 years. I've done digs at Pompeii, all the famous sites.

"But I've never been so moved because this is the discovery of something special."

An initial examination of the couple - dubbed the Lovers of Valdaro - revealed that the man (on the left in the picture) has an arrow in his spinal column while the woman has an arrow head in her side.

The area has already given up a spectacular Roman villa.

Five thousand years ago the area around Mantua was marshland and criss-crossed by rivers and the environment has helped preserve the skeletons in their near perfect state.

The tribes of the area thrived through hunting and fishing and travelled along the waterways in boats but even then the simple hunter gatherer lifestyle was being replaced by livestock rearing, weaving and pottery.

In Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is sent to Mantua for killing Tybalt Capulet in a swordfight.

Romeo subsequently leaves the city and returns to Verona when he hears his love, Juliet, has died.
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« Reply #20 on: November 29, 2007, 09:36:36 am »










                                         Scientists will preserve 'lovers of Valdaro'





13 February 2007,
Related Articles
Archaeologists awed by 'loving couple'
By Phil Stewart

Valdaro -                              Italy won't split up its Stone Age "lovers".



In a Valentine's Day gift to the country, scientists said they are determined to remove and preserve together the remains of a couple buried 5 000 to 6 000 years ago, their arms still wrapped around each other in an enduring embrace.

Instead of removing the bones one-by-one for reassembly later, archaeologists plan to scoop up the entire section of earth where the couple was buried, they told Reuters.

The plot will then be transported for study before being put on display in an Italian museum, thereby preserving the world's longest known hug for posterity.

"We want to keep can them just as they have been all this time - together," archaeologist Elena Menotti, who announced the discovery a week ago, told reporters.

Their removal will be a relief for archaeologists who had to hire extra security to guard the rural site outside the northern city of Mantova after the discovery made world headlines.

More importantly, it will give scientists a chance to figure out what was has become one of Italian archaeology's greatest mysteries: the first known Neolithic couple to be buried together, hugging.

Was it a sudden death? A ritual sacrifice? Or maybe they were prehistoric, star-crossed lovers who took their own lives.

That is a crowd-pleasing theory in these parts, since Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet was set in nearby Verona.

But scientists acknowledge they still know precious little about the now-famous Stone Age couple, whose embrace has become a subject of world newspaper headlines and chat shows.

Italians dubbed them the "Lovers of Valdaro" after the Mantova suburb of farmland and factories. But even their gender is a open question until scientists confirm the theory that they were a man and a woman.

Archaeologists seem certain the couple died young, since their teeth are intact and that they died during the Stone Age because of an arrowhead and tools found with the remains.

But new evidence indicates the couple were not alone and that the remains may have left been near a Stone Age settlement.

Archaeologists on site showed Reuters photographs of another skeleton found nearby, suggesting the couple were in some sort of prehistoric burial ground.

While the single body was buried East-West, possibly following the daily path of the sun across the sky, the Stone Age couple were buried "the wrong way".

"They were buried North-South, and we don't know why," said archaeologist Daniela Castagna, standing over the grave site.

John Robb, lecturer at Cambridge University and an expert in Neolithic Italian remains, says the trouble with the Stone Age couple is the singularity of the find - which makes it difficult to explain using known historic data.

He said Neolithic burials are almost always single burials.

"There are a couple of mass burials. There are couple of examples of heads being found under houses. And then, about one burial in every 20 or 30 sites is completely unique," he said.

"And these are probably things that have strange ritual circumstances of one kind or another."

But until scientists get a closer look at the bones, all anyone has are loose theories.

The discovery generated Internet conspiracy theories with some taking a darker interpretation of the hugging skeletons.

One reader on AOL, said it was absurd to assume "this couple is in eternal bliss".

"Maybe it is eternal hatred that had them locked together in a death grip," wrote another reader.

Other people have called for the couple to be left alone - something that Italian archaeologists say would leave the remains vulnerable to looters, vandals and even bad weather.

There is also a practical reason, the owner of the land hopes to soon build warehouses on it.

"We say rest in peace - unless you're dead long enough to be interesting," wrote another reader, Jim Noonan.   
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« Reply #21 on: November 29, 2007, 09:55:31 am »








Two skeletons locked in a tender embrace have been rescued by a team of professional archaeologists from the SAP archaeological unit during construction work on the Valdaro industrial park on the outskirts of Mantua. The scientific supervision of the excavation lies in the hands of Elena Menotti, of the Superintendency for Lombardy's archaeological Heritage.


The unique discovery dates back some five or six thousand years to the Italian Neolithic period, more or less when the very first construction work was getting underway at Stonehenge. The skeleton on the left hand side of the photo is believed to be male and has an arrowhead between his shoulder blades. His partner, supposedly female, though only after detailed scientific analysis will we be sure, has a flint dagger lying on what would have been her upper left thigh. From a preliminary examination of their teeth the two "lovers" died young, but detailed laboratory analysis is required to establish their exact age, sex, possibly the cause of death and whether they were related. Even such details as to their diet, and what kind of physical activity they were used to doing, comes to light under the microscope.


http://www.archeologica.it/valdaro.htm
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« Reply #22 on: December 01, 2007, 06:59:20 am »








                                                   Cultures, 1200 BC





A simplified map showing the Terramare culture c. 1200 BC (blue area).

The red area is the central Urnfield culture, and

the orange area is the northern Urnfield culture.

The purple area is the Lusatian culture,

the central blue area is the Knoviz culture.

The brown area is the Danubian culture, and

the green area is the Atlantic Bronze Age.

The yellow area is the Nordic Bronze Age.
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« Reply #23 on: December 01, 2007, 07:09:53 am »












                                                    T E R R A M A R E   C U L T U R E




 
Terramare or Terramara is a Bronze Age archaeological culture of Italy and Dalmatia, dating to ca. 1500-1100 BC. It takes its name from the "black earth" (terremare) residue of settlement mounds.

This civilization is represented by a number of finds, once thought to be sepulchral, but really the remains of human habitations, analogous to shell heaps or kitchen middens, the "black earth" used by later farmers as fertilizer. They are found chiefly in north Italy, in the valley of the Po, in the vicinity of Modena, Mantua and Parma.

A summary of early results as to these mounds was published by Munro (Lake Dwellings) in 1890, but scientific investigation really began only with the excavation of the terramare at Fontanellato (province of Parma) in 1889. From this and succeeding investigations certain general conclusions have been reached.

The Terramare, in spite of local differences, is of typical form; it is a settlement, trapezoidal in form, built upon piles on dry land protected by an earthwork strengthened on the inside by buttresses, and encircled by a wide moat supplied with running water. They range in size up to 20 hectares (not quite 50 acres). The east and west sides are parallel, and two roads, at right angles divide the settlement into four quarters.

Outside are one or two cemeteries. Traces of burning which have been found render it probable that, when the refuse thrown down among the piles had filled the space, the settlement was burned and a new one built upon the remains. The origin of the Terramare type is not definitely ascertained. The most probable inference, however, is that these settlements were not built to avoid the danger of inundation, but represent a survival of the ordinary lake dwelling.

The remains discovered may be briefly summarized. Stone objects are few. Of bronze (the chief material) axes, daggers, swords, razors and knives are found, as also minor implements, such as sickles, needles, pins, brooches, etc. There are also objects of bone and wood, besides pottery (both coarse and fine), amber and glass-paste. Small clay figures, chiefly of animals (though human figures are found at Castellazzo), are interesting as being practically the earliest specimens of plastic art found in Italy.

The occupations of the terramare people as compared with their Neolithic predecessors may be inferred with comparative certainty. They were, still hunters, but had domesticated animals; they were fairly skilful metallurgists, casting bronze in moulds of stone and clay; they were also agriculturists, cultivating beans, the vine, wheat and flax.

According to Prof. W. Ridgeway (Who were the Romans? p. 16; and Early Age of Greece, i. 496) burial was by inhumation: investigation, however, of the cemeteries shows that both inhumation and cremation were practiced, with cremated remains placed in ossuaries; practically no objects were found in the urns. Cremation may have been a later introduction.

Great differences of opinion have arisen as to the origin and ethnographical relations of the Terramare folk. Brizio in his Epoca Preistorica advances the theory that they were the original Ibero-Ligurians who at some early period took to erecting pile-dwellings. Why they should have done so is difficult to see.

Some of the terremare are clearly not built with a view to avoiding inundation, inasmuch as they stand upon hills. The rampart and the moat are for defence against enemies, not against floods, and as Brizio brings in no new invading people till long after the Terramare period, it is difficult to see why the Ibero-Ligurians should have abandoned their unprotected hut-settlements and taken to elaborate fortification.

There are other difficulties of a similar character. Hence Luigi Pigorini regards the Terramare people as a lake-dwelling people who invaded the north of Italy in two waves from Central Europe (the Danube valley) at the end of the Stone Age and the beginning of the Bronze Age, bringing with them the building tradition which led them to erect pile dwellings on dry land, as well as Indo-European languages. These people he calls the Italici, to whom he attributes to the Villanovan culture.

Modern thinking, however, attributes the Villanovan culture essentially to a proto-Etruscan people. It is thought the Terremare culture may be an early manifestation of Italic-speaking Indo-Europeans.





Sources



Mallory, J.P. (1997). "Terramare Culture", Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. 

Pigorini, Luigi. "{{{title}}}". Bollettino di paleoetnologia italiana. 

This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.



Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terramare_culture"
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« Reply #24 on: December 01, 2007, 07:27:18 am »








MODENA :

Terrramara Archaelogical Park
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« Reply #25 on: December 01, 2007, 07:34:35 am »



BONE TOOLS





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« Reply #26 on: December 01, 2007, 07:39:55 am »



The area of the Pianura Padana is highlighted
in the background map







DRAWING OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL PARK

MODENA
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« Reply #27 on: December 01, 2007, 07:49:35 am »



DEMONSTRATION OF  TERRAMARA METAL WORKING
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« Reply #28 on: December 01, 2007, 07:51:56 am »



INTERIOR OF ONE OF THE HUTS
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« Reply #29 on: December 01, 2007, 07:54:40 am »



"OUR ANCESTORS WHO BUILT ON STILTS"

The Terramara Village of Lago di Ledro





« Last Edit: December 01, 2007, 07:59:08 am by Bianca2001 » Report Spam   Logged

Your mind understands what you have been taught; your heart what is true.
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