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Topic: Seamounts (Read 2016 times)
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Christiana Hanaman
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Posts: 4989
Re: Seamounts
«
Reply #15
on:
May 22, 2011, 04:16:07 pm »
Conservation
The ecological conservation of seamounts is hurt by the simple lack of information available. Seamounts are very poorly studied, with only 350 of the estimated 100,000 seamounts in the world having received sampling, and fewer than 100 in depth.[23] Much of this lack of information can be attributed to a lack of technology, and to the daunting task of reaching these underwater structures; the technology to fully explore them has only been around the last few decades. Before consistent conservation efforts can begin, the seamounts of the world must first be mapped, a task that is still in progress.[2]
Overfishing is a serious threat to seamount ecological welfare. There are several well-documented cases of fishery exploitation, for example the orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand and the pelagic armorhead (Pseudopentaceros richardsoni) near Japan and Russia.[2] The reason for this is that the fishes that are targeted over seamounts are typically long-lived, slow-growing, and slow-maturing. The problem is confounded by the dangers of trawling, which damages seamount surface communities, and the fact that many seamounts are located in international waters, making proper monitoring difficult.[22] Bottom trawling in particular is extremely devastating to seamount ecology, and is responsible for as much as 95% of ecological damage to seamounts.[24]
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Christiana Hanaman
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Re: Seamounts
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Reply #16
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May 22, 2011, 04:16:46 pm »
Corals from seamounts are also vulnerable, as they are highly valued for making jewellery and decorative objects. Significant harvests have been produced from seamounts, often leaving coral beds depleted.[2]
Individual nations are beginning to note the effect of fishing on seamounts, and the European Commission has agreed to fund the OASIS project, a detailed study of the effects of fishing on seamount communities in the North Atlantic.[22] Another project working towards conservation is CenSeam, a Census of Marine Life project formed in 2005. CenSeam is intended to provide the framework needed to prioritise, integrate, expand and facilitate seamount research efforts in order to significantly reduce the unknown and build towards a global understanding of seamount ecosystems, and the roles they have in the biogeography, biodiversity, productivity and evolution of marine organisms.[23][25]
Possibly the best ecologically studied seamount in the world is Davidson Seamount, with six major expeditions recording over 60,000 species observations. The contrast between the seamount and the surrounding area was well-marked.[16] One of the primary ecological havens on the seamount is its deep sea coral garden, and many of the specimens noted were over a century old.[14] Following the expansion of knowledge on the seamount there was extensive support to make it a marine sanctuary, a motion that was granted in 2008 as part of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary.[26] Much of what is known about seamounts ecologically is based on observations from Davidson.[14][21] Another such seamount is Bowie Seamount, which has also been declared a marine protected area by Canada for its ecological richness.[27]
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Christiana Hanaman
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Posts: 4989
Re: Seamounts
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Reply #17
on:
May 22, 2011, 04:18:04 pm »
Because of overfishing at their seamount spawning grounds, stocks of orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) have plummeted; experts say that it could take decades for the species to restore itself to its former numbers.[22]
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Christiana Hanaman
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Posts: 4989
Re: Seamounts
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Reply #18
on:
May 22, 2011, 04:19:27 pm »
Coral earings of this type are often made from coral harvested off seamounts.
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Christiana Hanaman
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Posts: 4989
Re: Seamounts
«
Reply #19
on:
May 22, 2011, 04:20:13 pm »
Exploration
The study of seamounts has been stymied for a long time by the lack of technology. Although seamounts have been sampled as far back as the 19th century, their depth and position meant that the technology to explore and sample seamounts in sufficient detail did not exist until the last few decades. Even with the right technology available, only a scant 1% of the total number have been explored,[5] and sampling and information remains biased towards the top 500 m (1,640 ft).[2] New species are observed or collected and valuable information is obtained on almost every submersible dive at seamounts.[6]
Before seamounts and their oceanographic impact can be fully understood, they must be mapped, a daunting task due to their sheer number.[2] The most detailed seamount mappings are provided by multibeam echosounding (sonar), however after more than 5000 publicly held cruises the amount of the sea floor that has been mapped remains miniscule. Satellite altimetry is a broader alternative, albeit not as detailed, with 13,000 catalogued seamounts; however this is still only a fraction of the total 100,000. The reason for this is that uncertanties in the technology limit recognition to features 1,500 m (4,921 ft) or larger. In the future technological advances could allow for a larger and more detailed catalogue.[3]
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Christiana Hanaman
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Posts: 4989
Re: Seamounts
«
Reply #20
on:
May 22, 2011, 04:20:43 pm »
Deep-sea mining
Seamounts are a possible future source of heavy metals. The growth of the human population and, with it, heavy industry, has pressed demands for Earth's finite resources. Even though the ocean makes up 70% of the world, technological challenges with deep-sea mineral mining have severely limited its extent. But with the constantly decreasing supply on land, many see oceanic mining as the destined future, and seamounts stand out as candidates.[28]
Seamounts are abundant, and all have metal resource potential because of various enrichment processes during the seamount's life. Hydrogenic Iron-manganese, hydrothermal iron oxide, sulfide, sulfate, sulfur, hydrothermal manganese oxide, and phosphorite are all mineral resources that are founded by various processes and deposited upon seamounts. However, only the first two have any potential of being targeted by mining in the next few decades.[28]
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Christiana Hanaman
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Re: Seamounts
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Reply #21
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May 22, 2011, 04:23:03 pm »
Graph showing the rise in global sea level (in mm) as measured by the NASA/CNES oceanic satellite altimeter TOPEX/Poseidon (left) and its follow-on mission Jason-1.
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Christiana Hanaman
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Posts: 4989
Re: Seamounts
«
Reply #22
on:
May 22, 2011, 04:24:09 pm »
Dangers
Some seamounts have not been mapped and thus pose a navigational danger. For instance, Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that hit it in 1973.[30] More recently, the submarine USS San Francisco ran into an uncharted seamount in 2005 at a speed of 35 knots (40.3 mph; 64.8 km/h), sustaining serious damage and killing one seaman.[29]
One major seamount risk is that often, in the late of stages of their life, extrusions begin to seep in the seamount. This activity leads to inflation, over-extension of the volcano's flanks, and ultimetly flank collapse, leading to submarine landslides with the potential to start major tsunamis. This is one of the largest natural disasters in the world. In an illustration of the potent power of flank collapses, a summit collapse on the northern edge of Vlinder Seamount resulted in a pronounced headwall scarp and a field of debris up to 6 km (4 mi) away.[7] A catastrophic collapse at Detroit Seamount flattened its whole structure extensively.[10] Lastly, in 2004, scientists found marine fossils 61 m (200 ft) up the flank of Kohala mountain in Hawaii (island). Subsidation analysis found that at the time of their deposition, this would have been 500 m (1,640 ft) up the flank of the volcano,[31] far too high for a normal wave to reach. The date corresponded with a massive flank collapse at the nearby Mauna Loa, and it was theorized that it was a massive tsunami, generated by the landslide, that deposited the fossils.[32]
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Christiana Hanaman
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Posts: 4989
Re: Seamounts
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Reply #23
on:
May 22, 2011, 04:25:39 pm »
USS San Francisco in dry dock in Guam in January 2005, following its collision with an uncharted seamount. The damage was extensive and the submarine was just barely salvaged.[29]
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Christiana Hanaman
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Re: Seamounts
«
Reply #24
on:
May 22, 2011, 04:26:39 pm »
References
1. ^ Nybakken, James W. and Bertness, Mark D., 2008. Marine Biology: An Ecological Approach. Sixth Edition. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Seamount". Encyclopedia of Earth. December 9, 2008.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Seamount
. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
3. ^ a b c "The Global Seamount Census". Oceanography. Seamounts Special Issue (Oceanography Society) 23 (1). ISSN 1042-8275.
http://www.tos.org/oceanography/issues/issue_archive/issue_pdfs/23_1/23-1_wessel.pdf
. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
4. ^ a b Geophysical Monogram: Seamounts, islands and atolls. American Geophysical Union. 1987. ISBN 9780875900681. ISSN 0065-8448.
http://books.google.com/?id=u-NMJaicckMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Seamounts,+islands+and+atolls+keating&q
. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
5. ^ a b "Seamount Scientists Offer New Comprehensive View of Deep-Sea Mountains". ScienceDaily. 23 February 2010.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/02/100222162013.htm
. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
6. ^ a b "Seamounts Identified as Significant, Unexplored Territory". ScienceDirect. 30 April 2010.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100430091605.htm
. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "The Geological History of Deep-Sea Volcanoes: Biosphere, Hydrosphere, and Lithosphere Interactions". Oceanography. Seamounts Special Issue (Oceanography Society) 32 (1).
http://www.tos.org/oceanography/issues/issue_archive/issue_pdfs/23_1/23-1_staudigel2.pdf
. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
8. ^ "Pillow lava". NOAA.
http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/nemo/explorer/concepts/pillows.html
. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
9. ^ "SITE 1206". Ocean Drilling Program Database-Results of Site 1206. Ocean Drilling Program.
http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/197_IR/chap_01/c1_9.htm
. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
10. ^ a b "Seismic stratigraphy of Detroit Seamount, Hawaiian–Emperor Seamount chain" (PDF). Stanford University. July 12, 2005.
http://pangea.stanford.edu/research/groups/crustal/docs/Kerr.DetroitSeamount.G3.2005.pdf
. Retrieved 15 July 2010.
11. ^ Rubin, Ken (January 19, 2006). "General Information About Loihi". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. SOEST.
http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/HCV/loihi.html
. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
12. ^ "The Bowie Seamount Area". John F. Dower and Frances J. Fee. February, 1999.
http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/mpa/bowie/reports/bowback.pdf
. Retrieved 26 July 2010. [dead link]
13. ^ "Guyots". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/250080/guyot
. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
14. ^ a b c "Seamounts may serve as refuges for deep-sea animals that struggle to survive elsewhere". PhysOrg. February 11, 2009.
http://www.physorg.com/news153594680.html
. Retrieved December 7, 2009.
15. ^ "Davidson Seamount". NOAA, Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. 2006.
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06davidson/background/conservation/davidson_fact_sheet.pdf
. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
16. ^ a b McClain, Craig R.; McClain CR., Lundsten L., Ream M., Barry J., DeVogelaere A. (January 7, 2009). Rands, Sean. ed. "Endemicity, Biogeography, Composition, and Community Structure On a Northeast Pacific Seamount". PLoS ONE 1 (4): e4141. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004141. PMC 2613552. PMID 19127302.
http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0004141
. Retrieved December 3, 2009.
17. ^ a b Lundsten, L; L. Lundsten, J. P. Barry, G. M. Cailliet, D. A. Clague, A. DeVogelaere, J. B. Geller (January 13, 2009). "Benthic invertebrate communities on three seamounts off southern and central California". Marine Ecology Progress Series (Inter-Research Science Center) 374: 23–32. doi:10.3354/meps07745.
18. ^ Higashi, Y; Yowsuke Higashi et. al. (15 March 2004). "Microbial diversity in hydrothermal surface to subsurface environments of Suiyo Seamount, Izu-Bonin Arc, using a catheter-type in situ growth chamber". FEMS Microbiology Ecology 47 (3): 327–336. doi:10.1016/S0168-6496(04)00004-2. PMID 19712321.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T2V-4BJK5NY-3&_user=10&_coverDate=03%2F15%2F2004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1410995407&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=eb59ee966761ccbaedd7bde28bcc7ac6
. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
19. ^ "Introduction to the Biology and Geology of Lōʻihi Seamount". Lōʻihi Seamount. Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory (FeMO). 2009-02-01.
http://earthref.org/cgi-bin/er.cgi?s=http://earthref.org/FEMO/loihi.htm
. Retrieved 2009-03-02.
20. ^ Kennedy, Jennifer. "Seamount: What is a Seamount?". ask.com.
http://marinelife.about.com/od/glossary/g/seamountdef.htm
. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
21. ^ a b Morato, T., Varkey, D.A., Damaso, C., Machete, M., Santos, M., Prieto, R., Santos, R.S. and Pitcher, T.J. (2008). "Evidence of a seamount effect on aggregating visitors". Marine Ecology Progress Series 357: 23-32.
22. ^ a b c d "Seamounts – hotspots of marine life". International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.
http://www.ices.dk/marineworld/seamounts.asp
. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
23. ^ a b "CenSeam Mission". CenSeam.
http://censeam.niwa.co.nz/censeam_about
. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
24. ^ Report of the Secretary-General (2006) The Impacts of Fishing on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems United Nations. 14 July 2006. Retrieved on 26 July 2010.
25. ^ "CenSeam Science". CenSeam.
http://censeam.niwa.co.nz/science
. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
26. ^ "NOAA Releases Plans for Managing and Protecting Cordell Bank, Gulf of Farallones and Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuaries". Press release. NOAA. November 20, 2008.
http://cordellbank.noaa.gov/management/jmprpressrelease.pdf
. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
27. ^ "Bowie Seamount Marine Protected Area". Fisheries and Oceans Canada. May 25, 2006.
http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/mpa/bowie/default_e.htm
. Retrieved October 27, 2008. [dead link]
28. ^ a b "Seamount Mineral Deposits: A Source for Rare Minerals for High Technology Industries". Oceanography. Seamounts Special Issue (Oceanography Society) 23 (1). ISSN 1042-8275.
http://www.tos.org/oceanography/issues/issue_archive/issue_pdfs/23_1/23-1_hein.pdf
. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
29. ^ a b "USS San Francisco (SSN 711)".
http://www.ssbn611.org/uss_san_francisco.htm
. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
30. ^ Nigel Calder (2002). How to Read a Navigational Chart: A Complete Guide to the Symbols, Abbreviations, and Data Displayed on Nautical Charts. International Marine/Ragged Mountain Press.
31. ^ Seach, John. "Kohala Volcano - John Seach". Volcanism reference base. John Seach, volcanologist.
http://www.volcanolive.com/kohala.html
. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
32. ^ "Hawaiian tsunami left a gift at foot of volcano". New Scientist (Reed Business Information) (2464): 14. 2004-09-11.
http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18324641.900-hawaiian-tsunami-left-a-gift-at-foot-of-volcano.html
. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
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