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7000 Years of Thinking Regarding Earth's Shape

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Jason
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« on: June 26, 2007, 12:19:59 am »

90-
168 CE Ptolemy, Claudius - a Greek geographer, mathematician, and astronomer, compiled an encyclopedia of the ancient world from the archives of a legendary library in Alexandria, Egypt. His eight-volume Geography included extensive maps of the known world, all based on a curved globe. The framework and vocabulary of Ptolemy are still used today: the grid system of latitude and longitude including coordinates for eight thousand places in his Geography!  A truly amazing feat!   [60], [61]  From Ptolemy's Almagest, "That the earth, too, taken as a whole, is sensibly spherical can best be grasped from the following considerations: we can see, again, that the sun, moon and other stars do not rise and set simultaneously for everyone on earth, but do so earlier for those more towards the east, later for those towards the west." (Almagest, section i.4)  [101]
160-
220 CE Tertullian - Ecclesiastical writer who provides us with good examples of anti-intellectualism and the conflict developing between the Christian Church and science.  Notable quotations include this one where Tertullian criticizes the Greek philosophers and the Athens Academy, "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem, the Academy with the Church? What between heretics and Christians? ... We have no need for curiosity since Jesus Christ, nor for inquiry since the Gospel".  Another is a result of the story of Thales who supposedly fell into a well while observing the stars.  Tertullian said, "Tell me, what is the sense of this itch for idle speculation? What does it prove, this useless affection of a fastidious curiosity, notwithstanding the strong confidence of its assertions?  It is highly appropriate that Thales, while his eyes were roaming the heavens in astronomical observation, should have tumbled into a well.  This mishap may well serve to illustrate the fate of all who occupy themselves with the stupidities of philosophy." [56], [57], [58],[59]

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Tertullian represents an element of opposition to 'pagan' knowledge which certainly did manifest itself in the early Church, but it was a view which did not prevail.  (Also see discussion on "Influential or Fringe Writers?" in Chapter 3.)  He is often mentioned in flat earth debates for his anti-Greek remarks, yet this does not imply he believed the earth to be flat.  We could not find any material of his mentioning a flat earth.
245-
325 CE
 
 Lactantius (full name: Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius)- Ridiculed the idea that people could walk with their feet above their heads or that rain and snow could fall upwards towards the earth. [1] This argument, based on Biblical grounds, was that the world was not spherical, but flat.  Lactantius repeatedly criticizes philosophers in his writings as fools.
"How is it with those who imagine that there are antipodes opposite to our footsteps? Do they say anything to the purpose? Or is there any one so senseless as to believe that there are men whose footsteps are higher than their heads? or that the things which with us are in a recumbent position, with them hang in an inverted direction? that the crops and trees grow downwards? that the rains, and snow, and hail fall upwards to the earth? ... The origin of this error must also be set forth by us. For they are always deceived in the same manner. ... that last consequence also followed, that there would be no part of the earth uninhabited by men and the other animals. Thus the rotundity of the earth leads, in addition, to the invention of those suspended antipodes.  But if you inquire from those who defend these marvellous fictions, why all things do not fall into that lower part of the heaven, they reply that such is the nature of things,  ... I am at a loss what to say respecting those who, when they have once erred, consistently persevere in their folly, and defend one vain thing by another; but that I sometimes imagine that they either discuss philosophy for the sake of a jest, or purposely and knowingly undertake to defend falsehoods... " (Lactantius, Divine Institutions (302-323 A.D.), Book III - "Of the False Wisdom of Philosophers"  [37])

"About the antipodes also one can neither hear nor speak without laughter. It is asserted as something serious, that we should believe that there are men who have their feet opposite to ours. The ravings of Anaxagoras are more tolerable, who said that snow was black." (Lactantius, The Epitome of the Divine Institutes, Chapter XXXIX - Of Various Philosophers, and of the Antipodes.)  [38])

"The great majority of the early fathers of the Church, and especially Lactantius, had sought to crush it beneath the utterances attributed to Isaiah, David, and St. Paul, the better opinion of Eudoxus and Aristotle could not be forgotten." [14]



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Lactantius was a flat earther, pure and simple.  However, some argue that Lactantius was not influential on the medieval world view.  They believe e should not be presented as representative of later thinking on the shape of the earth.  They point to the fact that Lactantius is rarely ever referenced in later works, showing that his influence was practically non-existent.
Others argue, (see discussion on "Influential or Fringe Writers?" in Chapter 3), that this is hard to determine.  In Lactantius' case, we find him referenced in St. Augustine's De Doctrina Christiana.  Augustine seems to be looking favorably on Lactantius, at least regarding Egyptian gold.  In his De Doctrina Christiana, (On Christian Doctrine), Book II., Chapter 40, Augustine discusses the how Egyptians were worshipping idols and had "vessels and ornaments of gold and silver".  He says that "we must take and turn to a Christian use", "not doing this on their own authority, but by the command of God".  Referring specifically to Lactantius, he states, "And what else have many good and faithful men among our brethren done? ... How much Lactantius brought with him?" [91]  It is stated that other views of Lactantius eventually led to his posthumous condemnation as a heretic, but the influential St. Augustine's reference to him as among "good and faithful men" appears to show that he wasn't yet deemed a heretic by this time.
 
315-
386 CE St. Cyril of Jerusalem -  It is said that he followed Basil's teaching. Seems to have been in the flat earth camp.  Quotes frequently from the Bible and portrays earth as firmament floating on water using Gen. i. 6.  He wrote in his Catechetical Lectures: Lecture IX: "Him who reared the sky as a dome, who out of the fluid nature of the waters formed the stable substance of the heaven. For God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the water. God spake once for all, and it stands fast, and falls not. The heaven is water, and the orbs therein, sun, moon, and stars are of fire: and how do the orbs of fire run their course in the water? But if any one disputes this because of the opposite natures of fire and water, let him remember the fire which in the time of Moses in Egypt flamed amid the hail..." [85]   For a biography, see [83] 


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Some argue that he was not influential and note that his view did not prevail.  (Also see discussion on "Influential or Fringe Writers?" in Chapter 3.)
329-
379 CE Saint Basil, Bishop of Caesarea (Saint Basil the Great)- Presumed to have possessed profound knowledge in astronomy.  Attempted to incorporate modern thought into his interpretation of the Scriptures.  However, it appears that he foresaw the problems presented with the shape of the earth being a sphere and its contradiction to the Scriptures.  To avert such a showdown, he took the position that we don't need to know that and such knowledge was quite unnecessary.  [32] "Moses, is silent as to shapes; he has not said that the earth is a hundred and eighty thousand furlongs in circumference; he has not measured into what extent of air its shadow projects itself whilst the sun revolves around it, nor stated how this shadow, casting itself upon the moon, produces eclipses. He has passed over in silence, as useless, all that is unimportant for us. Shall I then prefer foolish wisdom to the oracles of the Holy Spirit? Shall I not rather exalt Him who, not wishing to fill our minds with these vanities, has regulated all the economy of Scripture in view of the edification and the making perfect of our souls?" (Saint Basil the Great - Hexaemeron 9, HOMILY IX., The creation of terrestrial animals.) [49]
329-
390 CE St. Gregory Nazianzen - Is said to have opposed antipodes by White, and showed that to sail beyond Gibraltar was impossible. [3]  Without a direct quote from Nazianzen, it's hard to know whether he opposed a spherical earth or just inhabited antipodes.  {Still looking for good reference on this.}

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** Included here only as a reference to works cited in the flat earth debates of contemporary authors.  Opposition to inhabited antipodes does NOT necessary mean opposition to a spherical earth or prove flat earth thinking.  (See Antipodes discussion in Chapter 3)
344-
408 CE St. John Chrysostom (considered a "doctor of the Church", bishop of Antioch, archbishop of Constantinople in 398) - opposed the earth's sphericity based on Scripture.  Regularly refers to the Earth having four corners as the Bible does in his sermons.  For example, the following quotations come from Homilies Against the Jews: "every corner of the earth", "her action is known in every corner of the earth", "every corner of the earth seen by the sun" [27]  Exerted his influence against a spherical earth. [2]  He is quoted by Kosmas (Cosmas) as stating "Where are those who say that the heaven is in motion?  Where are those who think it is spherical?  For both these opinions are here swept away." (in commenting on Hebrews 8:1.)
Knew that truly ending the 'heretical' study of the Greeks meant wiping out Greek writings -  happily declared, "Every trace of the old philosophy and literature of the ancient world has vanished from the face of the earth." [79]

Very critical of Greek teaching because it conflicted with Scripture and writings of the Church, including his own!  In his "Homily 2, Trinity, Sophists, Philosophers", Para 5, he takes pleasure in the fact that the Church is successfully silencing the Greeks - "And as for the writings of the Greeks, they are all put out and vanished, but this man's shine brighter day by day.  ...since then the (doctrines) of Pythagoras and of Plato, which seemed before to prevail, have ceased to be spoken of, and most men do not know them even by name."   [77], [78]  He continues to claim, "Pythagoras... practiced there ten thousand kinds of sorcery.... but by his magic tricks he deceived the foolish.  And neglecting to teach men anything useful."  He then calls Pythagoras a "barbarian"!  Chrysostom is quite animated at times while continuing to bash Pythagoras, stating "And as, if you uncover those sepulchers which are whitened without you will find them full of corruption, and stench, and rotten bones."  We'll stop for now, but rest assured there is a lot more Greek bashing in Chrysostom Homilies.  See: [77], [78]



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Chrysostom was "definitely a strong fundamentalist if not an absolute Biblical literalist and he certainly seems to have believed the earth was flat.  Like Tertullian, he was skeptical of any 'pagan' knowledge which seemed to cast doubt on any aspect of the Bible.  His oratory and theology were influential.  His belief in a flat earth was not."  [82]   Note: We do not share this view that he was influential in oratory and theology, but not flat earthism.  Though his flat earth views did not eventually previal, it is our opinion that he was probably influential in all three areas during his time.  But, we present both sides of the argument for you to make your own conclusions.  (Also see discussion on "Influential or Fringe Writers?" in Chapter 3.)
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